Application of Biotechnology

Introduction to Biotechnology

The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) has provided the definition of biotechnology as:

To put it simply, using the genetic material from cells and bacteria, we can change the genotype of an organism by altering its DNA. This is usually done by using a vector and delivering the desirable traits to the subject.

Biotechnology has since, grown rapidly in the last few decades. It is primarily used in medicine, agriculture, the food industry, and environmental practices.

Molecular Biotechnology Principles and Applications of Recombinant DNA

Biotechnology has two principles and using the applications of recombinant DNA technology, we can alter an organism’s genome and give it desirable traits using genetic engineering and bioprocess engineering.

Genetically Modified Organisms

Organisms such as plants, animals, bacteria, etc. whose genes have been altered through genetic engineering are called Genetically Modified Organisms. These organisms can be given desirable traits by inserting a foreign gene in their genome to change their phenotype.

Bt Cotton

Growing cotton has always been difficult as it is always under some threat from pests like bollworms. As a result, we were able to create pest-resistance cotton called Bt cotton!

Bt cotton is a genetically modified (GM) crop that has some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis inserted into its genome.

B. thuringiensis produces protein crystals which contain insecticidal proteins. This protein is present as an inactive protoxin which is activated once ingested by the insect by the alkaline pH of the gut. The activated toxin binds to the epithelial cells of the gut and creates pores in them. These pores cause cell lysis and eventually lead to the death of the insect.

Fig. 1: This diagram shows how insect-resistant Bt cotton is produced.

Transgenic Animals

Animals whose genes have been altered by genetic engineering are known as transgenic animals. The insertion of a foreign gene, a transgene into the genome of the animal, is done to give it desirable traits.

Many times, biological products like medicines and vaccines are tested on transgenic rats to assess their safety and any side effects that might develop. They are also used for chemical safety testing like makeup and the toxicity of drugs. These practices certainly raise questions about ethical standards.

Applications of Biotechnology in Healthcare

Biotechnology has helped in the development of the healthcare industry using recombinant DNA technological processes. It has helped develop vaccines, cure genetic disorders, create life-saving medicine for patients with diabetes and other drugs which have been discussed below.

Genetically Engineered Insulin

Insulin is a hormone that is produced by the islet cells in the pancreas. Its role is to primarily control the amount of sugar in our bloodstream.

As our blood sugar level increases, the pancreas releases insulin to bring down these levels to a normal amount. People with diabetes require insulin at regular time intervals to regulate their blood sugar levels since their body doesn't produce enough insulin.

There are two types of diabetic patients.

• People with type 1 diabetes can't produce insulin whereas,

• people with type 2 diabetes don't produce enough insulin.

When insulin is synthesized, it is produced as a pro-hormone with a polypeptide chain, chain C along with chains A and B. Mature insulin doesn’t have chain C and has only chains A and B.

This made insulin widely available and much more effective than animal insulin.

Fig 2: Diagram of pro-insulin being converted to mature insulin which is free of C peptide.

Gene Therapy

People with genetic diseases can now undergo gene therapy. Gene therapy is a collection of techniques used to correct a defective gene in an individual, usually at a young age but potentially in adults as well. Genetic disorders are treated by the insertion of a correct gene as a substitute for the defective gene. Vectors such as adenovirus are used to carry out this process.

If gene therapy is introduced to the child at a young age, there is a high chance of a permanent cure as the correct gene replaces the defective gene.

Molecular Diagnosis

You may have noticed during the COVID-19 pandemic, those showing symptoms had to undergo a rapid PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) test. This is yet another application of biotechnology used to diagnose diseases that can’t typically be diagnosed by urine or serum analysis.

Along with PCR, other diagnosis methods include ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) and Recombinant DNA technology. These techniques are based on the antigen-antibody interaction principle. Pathogens can be detected by the antigen’s presence such as proteins, glycoproteins, etc.

Application of Biotechnology in Waste Management

Biotechnology can be harnessed to help improve environmental factors such as waste management. Throughout this article, we have touched on some of these technologies. Genetic engineering plays an important role in the efficiency of producing less waste.

Genetically modified crops can help to reduce unnecessary food waste by helping farmers minimise crop loss while also conserving resources. It allows farmers to have higher yields while using less land, helping to conserve biodiversity. Additionally, growing some genetically modified crops has actually helped to reduce carbon dioxide emissions produced by agriculture since less heavy machinery is required.

Some crops which have been modified to reduce the need for fertilisers, and fish farms which use plant-based sources of food (usually from genetically modified crops) have less waste run-off which tends to lead to eutrophication (a process which reduces biodiversity due to the increase in aquatic plant and algae growth).

Applications in the Food Industry

With the help of biotechnology, we can now produce food that has a higher shelf life, an enhanced taste, and a high nutritive value. With the right techniques and resources, biotechnology can even be used to eradicate world hunger and other diseases caused by malnutrition.

Fermentation

Breweries use anaerobic yeast to produce alcohol. Traditionally, yeasts are known to ferment at 20-28 degrees Celsius. Genetically modified yeasts are known to produce alcohol at much lower temperatures, which are cost-effective. Bread is also produced similarly with the help of GM yeast. These cultures have been genetically refined to produce high-quality food products.

Longer Shelf Life

Have you ever noticed that the bananas or tomatoes you bought from the grocery store turn pulpy after letting them sit outside for a few days? This is called the ripening of fruits, and it can be especially annoying if your fruits and vegetables ripen too quickly and go bad after a few days. To tackle this problem, scientists have started producing genetically modified crops that naturally have a longer shelf life. This, in turn, has reduced the wasting of food and resources, saving money.

Examples of Biotechnology in Agriculture

Food security and trying to solve the problems associated with food production have been at the forefront of many scientists working in the agricultural industry by developing both new ways to grow food and new types of foods using techniques from biotechnology. This is carried out in 2 main ways: genetic modification (or engineering) and selective breeding.

Genetically Modified Crops

Food crops can be genetically modified or engineered. This is when an identified gene in a different species is removed using enzymes and placed into the DNA of another organism. When this occurs the resulting organism is known as transgenic.

Crops that have undergone genetic modification include such alterations to make them:

• More nutritionally valuable, such as golden rice - which contains a gene from another plant and a bacterium to make the rice grains produce beta-carotene, a chemical which turns into vitamin A in the human body. This variety of rice can help those suffering from disease-related deficiencies.

• Resistant to insects, such as in wheat and maize - these contain a gene from a bacterium known as Bacillus thuringiensis which naturally produces a toxin that kills pests such as caterpillars.

• Resistant to some herbicides (a chemical which destroys plants) - some plants contain this gene naturally. But, for those that don’t, this gene can be inserted so that when farmers spray their whole fields with herbicide, only the weeds are killed and not the crop plants.

• Drought-resistant so they grow better in drier, warmer conditions to increase crop yield.

Selective breeding

This type of breeding with regard to agriculture has been going on for thousands of years. Selective breeding is when an organism with desirable traits is bred with an organism of the same species, generally containing desirable traits too. It is used in food crops, livestock rearing and fish farming too.

When compared with genetic modification, selective breeding doesn’t come with some of the ethical concerns laid out with the latter biotechnology technique. For some, genetic modification veers too far from natural processes.

Application of Biotechnology in Aquaculture

Aquaculture, also known as water-based agriculture, includes processes such as fish farming used to achieve sustainable fishing. With the growing demand for farmed fish, biotechnology can help meet those demands.

Biotechnology plays a massive role in aquaculture, namely ensuring fish:

• Achieve a substantial growth rate using techniques such as selective breeding

• Aqua feeds have an increased nutritional value by producing alternative plant-based sources of protein

• Health is improved by using genetic engineering to select disease-resistant genes and through the administration of vaccines

It also offers environmental benefits, not only will it help with conserving wild stocks, but it can help to restore and protect the environment.

Applications of Biotechnology in the Dairy Industry

Bacteria that feed on lactose, coupled with biotechnology, can be used to change milk’s texture and convert it into cheese. This method has been incorporated into human culture for ages and only with the help of today’s technology can we mass produce these products which are not only of high quality but also cost-effective.