Eco-Criticism

History of eco-criticism

While scientific investigations into humanity's impact on the environment began in the 1930s, eco-criticism's history as a critical and literary theory began later. Rachel Carson's (1907-1964) Silent Spring (1962) is thought to have begun the literary eco-critical movement. Silent Spring investigated and criticised the use of pesticides in farming and the ways in which they can fundamentally damage the environment.

Pesticides had been found to be deeply destructive to the natural world, yet many people continued to use them regardless, as they served a purpose. Carson's novel sheds light on the dangers of pesticides and the human impact on the environment more broadly. It was the first literary text of its kind.

The term 'eco-criticism' was first coined by author William Rueckert (1926-2006) in his essay 'Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism' (1978). The eco-criticism movement of the late twentieth century was marked by an appreciation of nature and all its beauty. The movement made a relatively strict distinction between the human world and the natural world, though it did attempt to eliminate this distinction. It promoted fighting for better environmental policy that would benefit the planet. Eco-criticism at this time was sometimes accused of lacking nuance.

In 2005, the prominent professor and critic Michael P. Cohen called for eco-criticism to become more wide-ranging and aware as a critical field. The changes that were called for have come to define the ways in which modern eco-criticism operates today. Recently, eco-criticism has become a much more critical discipline, particularly as the worldwide ecological crisis worsens.

It has drawn in elements of both feminism and postcolonialism, recognising that the climate crisis most often impacts the most marginalised groups. Earlier eco-criticism typically focused more on the Western world, which restricted the study's scope. Many experts think that those outside of the West, for example in Africa and Asia, will be the first ones impacted by climate change. Eco-criticism believes that this should be recognised and investigated in eco-critical texts.

Types of eco-criticism

As the field has expanded, various types of eco-criticism have surfaced and developed. Below are some key examples of these variations.

Pastoral eco-criticism

Pastoral eco-criticism mostly deals with texts based in the Western world. Pastoral literature usually has a rural setting which is heavily idealised. The genre juxtaposes the chaos and corruption of urban life with the peace and serenity of the countryside. Pastoral literature promotes a human connection to nature and the importance of protecting it.

Fig. 1 - A rural setting, like one found in pastoral fiction.

Older eco-criticism tended to positively view pastoral literature's idealisation of nature. It was seen as promoting the potential of humanity's relationship with nature by choosing a rural setting. The urban world was demonised as being anti-nature. However, newer eco-criticism of the twenty-first century takes a more nuanced view. It critiques the divide that pastoral literature sets up between the urban and rural worlds. Modern eco-criticism sees both worlds as connected and integral to improving the ecological condition of the planet. Many modern eco-critics see pastoral literature as having a somewhat outdated view.

Feminist eco-criticism

Feminist eco-criticism is one of the more common types of eco-criticism. Texts that fit under this genre tend to link the patriarchal subjugation of women to the subjugation of the natural world by humans. Some ecofeminists believe that the natural world is inherently feminine, which gives women a deeper connection to nature than men. This idea can be first found in the influential book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974) by leading French critic, Françoise d'Eaubonne (1920-2005).

However, modern ecofeminists, like the critics Catherine Roach and Anne Archambault, see this as somewhat stereotypical. Ecofeminism believes that patriarchal societies, particularly in the West, only do things for the benefit of men and modernisation, neglecting both women and the natural world. This can produce a compassionate link between women and the environment, which may push certain women to become more involved in environmental movements.

Postcolonial eco-criticism

Postcolonial eco-criticism has become one of the most important types of eco-criticism in the last few decades. Environmental activists have begun to recognise that it is often postcolonial countries, like India, that will first feel the more devastating impacts of climate change. This is despite the fact that these countries are frequently the lowest contributors to pollution.

On the other hand, many Western countries, particularly in Europe and America, contribute significantly to pollution. Postcolonial eco-criticism recognises and analyses the geographical disparities that the climate crisis has exposed. Texts in the genre of postcolonial eco-criticism may criticise these hypocrisies while also trying to incite positive action on the environment within the international community.

Postcolonial eco-criticism also recognises the different ways that various countries and cultures interact with the natural world around them. Often people in postcolonial countries are shown to have better relationships with their natural environment, acknowledging the importance of every part of the ecosystem. In contrast, many in the Western world only see the natural world as useful if it can serve a particular purpose for humans.

Importance of eco-criticism in literature

Recently, eco-criticism has become much more relevant and important in literature as the global climate crisis grows in severity and scale. As a critical field, eco-criticism provides us with a way to analyse our relationship with the natural world in both a positive and negative sense. The study can put humanity's place on Earth into perspective as part of a broader ecosystem. Eco-critical texts encourage a nuanced view of the environment around us and, particularly, the ways in which it can be saved from pollution and damage.

Examples of eco-criticism in literature

There are many examples of eco-criticism in literature, one such being The Road (2006), a post-apocalyptic novel by author Cormac McCarthy (1933-). The Road follows a father and son travelling through the United States after some sort of apocalyptic event has occurred. The event itself is never specified, but some eco-critics believe the novel could plausibly be set after an ecological collapse. The Road is a dark and grim novel with a lot of unsettling imagery. This shows the potential devastation that could come as a result of climate change.

Fig. 2 - McCarthy's novel shows a world devastated by an apocalypse.

There is a particular emphasis in The Road on food or lack thereof. In this post-apocalyptic world, food is very difficult to come by, with many characters willing to fight for it or resorting to cannibalism. In depicting a world such as this, The Road emphasises the importance of the Earth's ecosystem and how each element relies on the other. Humanity relies on nature for food, while nature relies on humanity to take appropriate care of it.