Chiasmus

Chiasmus: definition

To understand chiasmus, let's look at a basic definition and then identify the essential features of the device.

An example of chiasmus is:

As you can see, the colour-coded concepts are related, and the first and second phrases are mirrored. At first, this may seem confusing, so let's break down the crucial factors that make chiasmus unique.

Words that are 'related'

All sentences with chiasmus must contain words that are related to each other. Let's look at a simple example to explain this concept:

In this example, 'pet' is related to 'dog' and 'anxiety' is related to 'worrying'. You'll notice that the words in each phrase do not need to be identical; they only need to be related.

Two words can be 'related' in a variety of ways. The most common form of chiasmus contains words that have similar meanings, as seen in the example above. However, chiasmus can also include terms that are related because they are opposites of each other. For example:

The words 'accept'/'refuse' and 'day'/'night' don't share the same meaning but are still related to each other because they are opposites. This means the sentence is still an example of chiasmus.

A good rule of thumb to keep in mind is: if the concepts don't relate to each other, it's not chiasmus. As it's sometimes difficult to judge whether two concepts are related, it's not always easy to identify whether something fits the device or doesn't.

To help put this in perspective, let's look at an example that is not chiasmus:

While 'She detested' and 'her hatred' are related, 'her boyfriend's lousy baking' and 'Monday mornings' are completely unconnected concepts, meaning the sentence cannot be chiasmus. In comparison, if we were to turn this sentence into an example of chiasmus, it would look like this:

As her 'boyfriend's lousy baking' and 'his terrible cake-making' are related concepts, this example now fits the criteria for chiasmus.

Inverted sentence structure

Chiasmus depends on the inversion of two related concepts. While similar words may be repeated in consecutive phrases, if the structure of the phrase isn't inverted, the sentence can't be an example of chiasmus.

For instance, at first glance, this sentence may seem to meet the criteria for chiasmus:

The words 'die'/'live' and 'feet'/'knees' are related to each other in some capacity. However, because the two phrases are not mirrored, they are not chiasmus. If this sentence were to be changed into chiasmus, it would look like this:

The related words have now been inverted so that they mirror each other, turning the sentence into chiasmus. It can be helpful to think of chiasmus as following an 'A-B-B-A' structure, where the corresponding letters represent related concepts. In contrast, the first example in this section would be illustrated by an 'A-B-A-B' structure.

Chiasmus: types

Chiasmus is closely related to another literary device known as antimetabole. The terms are so alike that antimetabole is commonly seen as a type of chiasmus.

Pick up on any differences? The key word is 'replicated'. In an antimetabole, the same words or phrases are mirrored across separate clauses. For example:

Notice how the words on both sides are the same? Some stricter definitions of chiasmus state that concepts should be inverted and repeated but that the words should always be different. Using this definition, the example above would not be an example of chiasmus.

Chiasmus: origin

The word 'chiasmus' was first used in the 19th century and derives from the Greek word khiasmos which translates to a 'crossing, diagonal arrangement'. This itself derives from the greek word chi, the twenty-second letter of the Greek alphabet, which resembles an 'X'.

Fig. 1 - This a graphic representation of the chiastic structure.

Each letter here represents a concept. When read from left to right, top to bottom, the letter X reflects the A-B-B-A chiasmus format that we mentioned earlier. The diagonal lines link the corresponding letters, and therefore concepts, together.

Chiasmus: in literature

Chiasmus has a long and complex history within English literature. Authors of ancient texts commonly employed it to express order and balance within their work. Greek, Latin and Hebrew writers were some of the first to employ chiasmus.

The technique is commonly associated with poetry, largely because the poetic genre promotes manipulation of language, form and structure. However, instances of chiasmus can be found throughout literature in everything from novels to drama. Dramas that contain poetic verse are particularly suited to chiasmus.

Although rare in modern prose due to the often formal language it creates, chiasmus has maintained its reputation as an effective literary device. It is stylistically appealing and is also capable of reiterating a concept in a different way to expand upon an idea. Both of these features help make chiasmus memorable for the reader.

Chiasmus: examples

Here are some examples of chiasmus across time.

Shakespeare

The work of Shakespeare is bursting with brilliant examples of chiasmus. For example, in Othello (1604), Iago warns Othello against jealousy in his attempts to sew the seed that Othello's wife is unfaithful. He uses a chiasmus to emphasise the contradictions of jealousy. The words 'dotes'/'loves' and 'doubts'/'suspects' are related.

Mary Leapor

Mary Leapor (1722-1746), in her feminist poem 'Essay on Woman' (1751), satirised the confining roles assigned to women in the eighteenth century, employing a chiasmus to emphasise these limitations. The words 'despised'/'betrayed' and 'ugly'/'fair' are related.

John Milton

In his epic poem, Paradise Lost, Milton includes multiple excellent examples of chiasmus. Often Milton's use of chiasmus is based on religion. In this instance, 'love' and 'grace' are concepts linked in the eye of God, and 'without end' and 'without measure' both represent eternity.