Intertextuality

Intertextuality definition

Basically, literary intertextuality is when a text refers to other texts or to its cultural environment. The term also implies that texts do not exist without context. Other than being a theoretical way of reading or interpreting texts, in practice, linking to or referencing other texts also adds additional layers of meaning. These author-created references can be deliberate, accidental, direct (like a quote) or indirect (like an oblique allusion).

Fig. 1 - Intertextuality means texts that reference or allude to other texts. The meaning of one text is shaped or influenced by its relationship with other texts.

Another way of looking at intertextuality is to see nothing as unique or original anymore. If all texts are made up of previous or co-existing contexts, ideas, or texts, are any texts original?

Purpose of intertextuality

An author or poet can use intertextuality deliberately for a variety of reasons. They would probably choose different ways of highlighting intertextuality depending on their intention. They may use references directly or indirectly. They might use a reference to create additional layers of meaning or make a point or place their work within a particular framework.

A writer could also use a reference to create humour, highlight an inspiration or even create a reinterpretation of an existing work. The reasons and ways to use intertextuality are so varied that it is worth looking at each example to establish why and how the method was used.

Types and examples of intertextuality

There are a few levels to potential intertextuality. To start with, there are three main types: obligatory, optional, and accidental. These types deal with the significance, intent, or lack of intent, behind the interrelation, so they are a good place to begin.

Obligatory intertextuality

This is when an author or poet deliberately references another text in their work. This can be done in a variety of ways and for a variety of reasons, which we will look at. The author intends to make the external references and intends the reader to understand something about the work that they are reading as a result. This would usually happen when the reader both picks up on the reference and understands the other work being referenced. This creates intended layers of meaning that are lost unless the reader is familiar with the other text.

Obligatory intertextuality: examples

You are probably familiar with William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1599-1601) but you may be less familiar with Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead (1966). Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are minor characters from the famous Shakespearean play but major ones in Stoppard’s work.

Without any knowledge of the original work referenced, the reader’s ability to understand Stoppard’s work would not be possible. Although Stoppard's title is a line taken directly from Hamlet, his play takes a different look at Hamlet, inviting alternative interpretations of the original text.

Optional intertextuality

Optional intertextuality is a milder kind of interrelatedness. In this case, an author or poet may allude to another text to create another nonessential layer of meaning. If the reader picks up on the reference and knows the other text, it can add to their understanding. The important part is that the reference is not critical to the reader's understanding of the text being read.

Optional intertextuality: examples

JK Rowling's Harry Potter series (1997-2007) subtlety alludes to J.R.R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings series (1954-1955). There are several parallels between the young male protagonists, their group of friends who help them achieve goals, and their ageing wizard mentor. Rowling also references J. M. Barrie's Peter Pan (1911), both in theme, characters, and a few lines.

The main difference is that it is possible to read, understand and appreciate the Harry Potter series without ever having read J.R.R. Tolkien or J.M. Barry’s works at all. The allusion only adds an additional but nonessential meaning, so that the layer of meaning enhances rather than creates the reader's understanding.

Accidental intertextuality

This third type of intertextuality happens when a reader makes a connection that the author or poet did not intend to make. This can happen when a reader has knowledge of texts that perhaps the author does not, or even when a reader creates links to a certain culture or to their personal experience.

Accidental intertextuality: examples

These can take almost any form, so examples are endless and dependent on the reader and their interaction with the text. One person reading Moby Dick (1851) may draw parallels to the biblical story of Jonah and the whale (another man and whale story). Herman Melville’s intention was probably not to link Moby Dick to this particular biblical story.

Contrast the Moby Dick example with John Steinbeck’s East of Eden (1952) which is a clear and direct obligatory reference to the biblical story of Cain and Abel. In Steinbeck’s case, the link was deliberate and also necessary to fully understand his novel.

Types of intertextual texts

In intertextuality, there are two main types of text, the hypertextual and the hypotextual.

The hypertext is the text that the reader is reading. So, for example, this could be Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. The hypotext is the text that is being referenced, so in this example it would be William Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

Intertextual figures

Generally, there are 7 different figures or devices used to create intertextuality. These are allusion, quotation, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche, and parody. The devices create a range of options that cover intent, meaning, and how direct or indirect the intertextuality is.

^1. Graham Allan, Intertextuality, Routledge, (2000).