Unreliable Narrator

Unreliable Narrator: Definition

Characteristics of an Unreliable Narrator

There are a series of factors that can make a narrator unreliable. These include but are not limited to:

• A deteriorating mental state.

• A lack of maturity - the narrator could be too young to accurately recall events.

• Deliberately misguiding readers with a false narrative.

• Being under the influence of mind-altering substances such as drugs or alcohol.

• Exaggeration in their narration.

• Lying to themselves and others.

Fig. 1 - The human mind is intricately complex and can be unreliable.

Reliable vs Unreliable Narrator

In contrast to an unreliable narrator, a reliable narrator is able to give an accurate and impartial account of events. A reliable narrator's retelling of a story is not tainted by any factors that could make a narrator unreliable, such as the factors mentioned above.

Sometimes, it can be quite easy to distinguish an unreliable narrator from a reliable narrator. For example, as opposed to reliable narrators, unreliable narrators may:

• Contradict statements they have previously made or there appears to be a fault in their retelling of a memory.
• Be under the influence of substances such as drugs or alcohol.
• Recall knowledge that contradicts what readers already know or are expected to know about the world the narrator is in.

However, the distinction between a reliable and unreliable narrator is not always explicit. This is because, as first-person narrators will always include their subjective experiences, their narration may not be accurate due to the influence of their own views, feelings, and experiences.

In general, first-person narration aims to tell the most accurate version of an experience. On the other hand, unreliable narration can also include an extreme distortion of an experience, and there may be hints towards the factors that influence the narrator’s lack of credibility.

The purpose and effect of an Unreliable Narrator

Wayne C. Booth (1921-2005) was an American literary critic who first coined the term ‘unreliable narrator’ in his text The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961). This text explains methods you can employ when reading and writing literary texts. Booth believed that a work of fiction does not have to represent reality or include truth all the way through the text and that, in fact, distance from the truth can lead to a text being more exciting.

The purpose of an unreliable narrator is to withhold information from readers or to intentionally steer readers in the wrong direction. Keeping readers in the dark in these ways can have multiple effects. If the direction of the plot is intentionally unclear, the reader is encouraged to question the presented narrative (or narratives) and consider their own interpretation of the story's possible progression and 'truth' of events.

The use of an unreliable narrator makes a story intriguing; it is different from the typical narrative style which uses a reliable narrator. With an unreliable narrator, readers have little idea what to expect. Furthermore, when there are a variety of possible truths present in the story, a text can become more complex and enticing to readers.

Fig. 2 – Which way is the right way?

The five types of Unreliable Narrator

There are many different reasons why a narrator could be considered unreliable, including signs of mental instability, naivety or immaturity, being under the influence of drugs and alcohol, exaggeration, and lies that are told to themselves and others.

An unreliable narrator may reflect any number of these signs; however, there are also certain types of unreliable narrators you can look out for; in 1981, William Riggan identified five different categories: picaros, madmen, naifs, clowns, and liars.¹

The Picaro

This unreliable narrator is unreliable because they have a tendency to exaggerate when recalling events.

The Madman

With this type of unreliable narrator, their lack of credibility is caused by mental issues that conflict with reality.

The Naif

The Naif, or 'Naïf' in William Riggan's words, is an unreliable narrator because they are very young and so cannot accurately recall events. The Naif may also be unreliable because they don’t have enough experience to be able to perceive events in a factual way, either in certain areas of life or in general.

The Liar

With this type of unreliable narrator, their lack of credibility is due to the fact that they are lying. This is a common choice for an unreliable narrator, and the lies can take the form of fabricated stories or lies of omission, among others.

The Clown

The Clown is a narrator who does not take narrations seriously and consciously plays with conventions, truth, and the reader's expectations.

Unreliable Narrator: Examples

We Need To Talk About Kevin (2003) by Lionel Shriver

The narrator in this novel is Eva Khatchadourian. She is Kevin’s mother and narrates the events before, leading up to, and after her son Kevin’s attack on his high school in which several students are murdered and injured. Eva is an unreliable narrator because her retelling of memories may not be factually correct due to her bias as Kevin's mother. Her trauma as a result of her son's actions may also lead to her retelling being not as objective or factual as it could be.

Wuthering Heights (1847) by Emily Bronte

Wuthering Heights is about the struggle of the protagonist Catherine ‘Cathy’ Earnshaw when choosing between her suitors, Edgar Linton and Heathcliff. The narrators in Wuthering Heights are Nelly Dean and Mr Lockwood. As Nelly is known for exaggerating the events she recalls, she is an example of the picaro type of unreliable narrator. Mr Lockwood uses the information Nelly provides him to form his own judgements on the events in his own writing. Because he receives his information from the unreliable narrator, Nelly, his own narration is unintentionally unreliable because it is not based on objective truth. Mr Lockwood could, therefore, be considered an example of the naif type of unreliable narrator.

How to create your own Unreliable Narrator

When creating an unreliable narrator, you must first decide on what characteristics your narrator has that makes them unreliable.

If your narrator is unreliable due to telling lies or untruths, you have to be able to construct their lies in a way that is plausible. It should not be easy to see through your narrator's lies and making your narrator intelligent or giving them a backstory that explains why they are unable to confront the truth helps keep the deception believable.

If you want your narrator to be unreliable due to mental instability like psychopathy in the case of Alex in A Clockwork Orange, for example, you should research typical characteristics of a psychopath and weave them into your narrator’s words and actions.

If your narrator is unreliable due to their tendency to exaggerate, make the exaggerations interesting. Your narrator’s exaggerations should show the attitude they take when they view the world. For example, in Don Quixote, the protagonist and narrator Don Quixote's exaggerations show his redeeming qualities of chivalry and kindness as he still helps those in need.

If your unreliable narrator is naive, this could be demonstrated by contrasting their perspective with those of other characters. The naive unreliable narrator is 'innocent' in all or some respects. This does not necessarily mean that they never do 'bad' things, but that they have gaps in their knowledge or understanding.

Above all, when using an unreliable narrator, don't reveal too much of the truth all at once. Reveal the truth incrementally, as this keeps the story interesting and also makes the writing process more fun for you as you create a complex journey that builds up to a final reveal. Furthermore, giving your unreliable narrator redeeming qualities gives readers a reason to keep reading, whether to better understand the narrator's motives or in the hopes that the narrator will learn and change.

¹ William Riggan, Pícaros, Madmen, Naïfs, and Clowns: The Unreliable First-person Narrator,

1981.