Neo-Classical: Meaning, Theory & Literature

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Neo-classical meaning

Neo-classicism was a literary and artistic movement that lasted from approximately the early 1600s until the late 1700s, and it significantly influenced culture during this time. There have been debates between literary scholars over when exactly neo-classicism begun. Two basic schools of thought exist. One believing that it began in the early 1600s, whereas another would argue that the movement began closer to 1660 when the Restoration occurred. Regardless of which side is right, there is a great deal of overlap.

Neo-classicism was prevalent across Europe, with some of the biggest literary strides occurring in England. Neo-classicism focused on taking aspects of Ancient Greek and Roman art and literature and imitating them. These original Ancient Greek and Roman texts were called classical works. Neo-classicism reworked these forms from antiquity for the modern day. Much of this was inspired by Grand Tours that were common across Europe at the time. Young artists and writers became increasingly more aware of the artistic cultures of Ancient Greece and Rome and then used them in their own art.

Grand Tours: a common practice for young people of the upper classes, particularly young men, in the 1600s and 1700s. It involved travelling around the continent of mainland Europe and engaging in cultural education. Grand Tours were typically focused on Italy, France, and Greece.

Neo-classicism differed from the previous Renaissance period significantly. Renaissance literature often focused on the importance of the individual, particularly on humanity's inherent moral good. Neo-classical literature instead focused on more universal issues and portrayed humans as much more nuanced and flawed.

Neo-classicism also coincided with the Age of Enlightenment. The principles of this period came to influence Neo-classicist writing. Writers in the movement often questioned accepted social and cultural norms, moving towards new perceptions of more widespread equality.

The Renaissance: a period of history in Europe from the fourteenth century through the sixteenth century. It was characterised by a revival of the arts and sciences. Literature, art, and theatre all flourished. This time period is seen as one when Europe significantly modernised. The English Renaissance was specifically focused on literature and theatre that became widely popular during this time, whereas the Italian Renaissance looked more at the visual arts.

The Age of Enlightenment: a philosophical, social, and cultural movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It marked a turning point in the Western world, particularly in Europe. It can be characterised by a questioning of accepted norms, particularly challenging the control that monarchies and religious leaders had over society.

There were leaps made forward in the scientific world during the Age of Enlightenment too. Ideas of equality were prominent during this period, with both the American Revolution (1775-1783) and French Revolution (1789-1799) occurring.

Neo-Classical, the Ancient Greek Parthenon, StudySmarter

Fig. 1 - Neo-classicism borrowed from Ancient Greek and Roman writing.

Although there are debates on when it exactly began, the neo-classical period is typically divided into three definable periods.

The Restoration period. This lasted from the mid-1600s to the early 1700s. The period is particularly marked by the reign of King Charles II (1630-1685). The Restoration era can be defined by its frivolity and relaxing of social rules and norms. It was a more permissive time for many. This came as a reaction to the repressive Puritan era that had come before under Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658).
The Augustan period. This covered the first half of the eighteenth century. This period is named after the Ancient Roman emperor Augustus (63 BC-14 AD), signalling an Ancient Roman influence in the art and literature of the time.
The Age of Johnson. This final period of the neo-classical movement covered the second half of the eighteenth century. It was named after the prolific English writer Samuel Johnson (1709-1784). The writing of this time was somewhat less formal and more progressive than the earlier neo-classical stages.

Neo-classical approach

Despite a wide variety of texts being produced during the neo-classical period, many authors took a similar approach to their work. Below is a table of key characteristics of neo-classical writing.

Characteristic	Explanation
Order and structure	Neo-classical texts tended to have a strict formal structure. This deviated from the looser structures of the Renaissance period.
Discussion of social issues	In comparison to the previous period of the Renaissance which focused on the individual, social issues were frequently explored in neo-classicism. This mirrored the social revolutions that were happening across Europe at the time. People were fighting for better living and working conditions and wished to see this reflected in their literature.
Flawed characters	Neo-classicism took the Renaissance's interest in humanism and modernised it. Renaissance literature viewed humans as inherently morally good, whereas neo-classical works saw humans as much more flawed and nuanced, just as capable of doing bad as doing good.
Borrowing from antiquity	A defining feature of neo-classicism is its borrowing from the works of Ancient Greece and Rome. Genres, techniques, and themes were all taken from this period and used in neo-classicism in a modern context.
An emphasis on logic and rationality	Thematically, neo-classical literature focused heavily on portraying logical and sensible viewpoints. Neo-classicist authors rationalised things in their work, focusing on what is knowable rather than what isn't, like religion and spirituality.

Neo-classical literature

Neo-classical literature typically consisted of formal and rational texts that explored various social issues while borrowing heavily from antiquity. Read on for some examples!

Neo-classical literature: Volpone (1606)

Volpone, a play by poet and playwright Ben Jonson (c. 1572-c. 1637), is a significant contributing factor to the belief that neo-classicism began in the early 1600s. First premiered in only 1606, Volpone is an influential play that imitates Ancient Greek and Roman works.

The play follows the eponymous character of Volpone, the Italian word for fox, as he attempts to deceive three men who wish to inherit his riches after he is dead, Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino. Set in Venice, a series of chaotic plots ensue as Volpone pretends to be on his deathbed in order to trick these three men. Each are duped in different ways in their efforts to secure Volpone's fortune. However, none involved receive a happy ending.

The play is a satirical one, a highly popular genre in Ancient Greece and Rome. Volpone embodies many characteristics of neo-classical literature. All characters in the play are highly flawed, giving a nuanced representation of humanity. Additionally, a sense of logic and justice prevails at the end of the play. The characters which have been driven by greed, including Volpone himself, are punished by the court for their actions. They are held up as something not to be imitated.

Satire: when a literary work uses irony or exaggeration to mock something. Satires often parody a particular well-known figure, social group, or social norm. They can be used to challenge something that is accepted by society. An example of a literary satire is A Midsummer Night's Dream (1605) by William Shakespeare (1564-1616).

Neo-classical literature: Gulliver's Travels (1726)

Gulliver's Travels is a satirical novel by Irish writer, Jonathan Swift (1667-1745). The story revolves around Lemuel Gulliver, a surgeon and seafarer, who travels the world, discovering new countries and their species. Gulliver ends up in multiple countries, each inhabited by different kinds of non-human creatures.

For example, he finds himself in Lilliput, an island belonging to the Lilliputians, a race of creatures only a few centimetres tall. Swift portrays these creatures as absurd, basing political affiliations on what shoes people wear and engaging in petty arguments. In reality, this was a veiled criticism of the superficiality of the British political system at the time.

The last new species Gulliver comes across are the Houyhnhnms, a hyper-intelligent race of horses who prioritise rationality and logic above all else. The horses are surprised by Gulliver who seems to be a more evolved version of another species they share their island with, the Yahoos. The Yahoos are human in appearance, yet, in reality, they are unclean, harsh, and brutish. Eventually, Gulliver returns to England, unsettled by all he has learned.

Fact! By the end of Swift's novel, Gulliver has lost all faith in humanity, believing the Houyhnhnms correct to judge the Yahoos so harshly. In England, he isolates himself, surrounds himself with horses, and only interacts with them from that time on.

Many characteristics of neo-classical literature can be found in Gulliver's Travels. Like in Volpone, the use of satire borrows directly from antiquity, with the genre being extremely popular in both Ancient Greece and Rome. Swift's novel also explores various social issues through the different species Gulliver encounters. They are used metaphorically.

The characters of the Yahoos represent humanity's various flaws, insinuating that humans are not as evolved and logical as they may think. Instead, the values of rationality, common sense, and emotional detachment are lauded in the Houyhnhnms. Gulliver believes only the Houyhnhnms are approaching life in the correct way. This is the moral that Swift wants his writers to take away.

Metaphor: a literary device in which something is used to symbolically represent something else, despite the fact that the two things are likely not linked. Metaphors can be used to highlight a deeper meaning behind something.

Neo-classical age poetry

Neo-classical poetry shared many characteristics with the general literature of the period. It borrowed forms and techniques from Ancient Greek and Roman poetry, as well as addressing more wide-ranging social issues. Neo-classical poets also adopted very strict formal structures.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and John Dryden (1631-1700) were two central poets of this era. Below are some common characteristics of neo-classical poetry.

Measured formal structure.
Lack of lyricism and romantic imagery.
Rational and logical viewpoints.
References to antiquity.
Biblical allusions.
A moral lesson behind the poem.

Heroic couplets were a defining characteristic of neo-classical poetry. A heroic couplet is two linked and rhyming lines of poetry written in iambic pentameter. Iambic pentameter is a form of metre that consists of lines with five metrical feet each. A metrical foot consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one. The metre was majorly popularised by William Shakespeare.

Heroic couplets were commonly used by both Pope and Dryden in their works, often containing a succinct moral lesson or witty observation. For example, in his iconic poem, An Essay on Criticism (1711), Pope includes the much-quoted couplet, 'Good nature and good sense must ever join/To err is human, to forgive, divine.' (Lines 525-526)

Neo-classical criticism

A central feature of neo-classical literature was engaging in criticisms of various social norms and hierarchies. Neo-classicism was often didactic, meaning it intended to teach its audience a particular lesson. The movement took issue with overt displays of emotion and chaos. It instead encouraged its readers to approach life with measured logic. It also challenged powerful church hierarchies, governments, and monarchies.

However, the neo-classical period only lasted for approximately one hundred and fifty years. After this came Romanticism, a literary movement that encapsulated everything that neo-classicism had been working against. Romanticism focused back on the individual and encouraged creativity, lyricism, and an appreciation of beauty above all else.

Neo-Classical, two glowing question marks lying in a pile of dull ones, StudySmarter Fig. 2 - Neo-classical literature questioned and critiqued what was socially accepted.

Neo-Classical - Key takeaways

Neo-classicism was a literary and artistic movement that lasted from the early 1600s until the late 1700s.
It can be characterised by the ways in which it borrowed from Ancient Greek and Roman classical literature.
Jonathan Swift's (1667-1745) Gulliver's Travels (1726) is an example of a neo-classical novel.
Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and John Dryden (1631-1700) were two key poets of the movement.
Neo-classical literature was typically rational, measured, and followed strict formal structures.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Neo-Classical

What is neo-classical theory?

Neo-classical theory promoted rationale and logic above all else, discouraging high emotions and chaos.

What are neo-classical elements?

Elements of neo-classical literature include borrowing from antiquity, strict formal structures, and questioning social norms.

Who is a neo-classical artist?

Jonathan Swift is an important figure of the neo-classical period.

What is the difference between classical and neo-classical theory?

Classical works refers to works produced during the eras of Ancient Greece and Rome, whereas neo-classical works are later texts that tried to re-produce elements from these eras in a modern context.

When was the neo-classical period?

The neo-classical period lasted from the early 1600s until the end of the 1700s.

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Neo-Classical

StudySmarter Editorial Team

Neo-classical meaning

Neo-classical approach

Neo-classical literature

Neo-classical literature: Volpone (1606)

Neo-classical literature: Gulliver's Travels (1726)

Neo-classical age poetry

Neo-classical criticism

Neo-Classical - Key takeaways

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Neo-Classical

StudySmarter Editorial Team

Neo-classical meaning

Neo-classical approach

Neo-classical literature

Neo-classical literature: Volpone (1606)

Neo-classical literature: Gulliver's Travels (1726)

Neo-classical age poetry

Neo-classical criticism

Neo-Classical - Key takeaways

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