Logical Arguments in Essays

Logical Argument Example

Let’s see how Thomas Jefferson states his claim and reasons in “The Declaration of Independence.” Jefferson believes that the British colonies on the North American continent should separate from the British government and form their own country. He writes the following claim to convince his audience of his beliefs:¹

Jefferson states his claim and then provides his evidence, which is broken down below, to prove why King George III is a tyrannical leader.

• Claim: King George III imposed tyranny over the colonies.

• Reason: He does not acknowledge the laws that the colonists' legislatures passed.

You must use claims with reasons to make logical arguments. Making logical arguments in essays will require you to think critically about how you want to make your claims and which reasons you want to use them.

Constructing Reasons in Logical Arguments

Writers have different ways of forming reasons to support their claims in a logical argument. The Greek philosopher Aristotle broke down these methods into two general categories: artistic and inartistic proofs.

Artistic Proofs

Artistic proofs are arguments the writer creates. Instead of using hard evidence, the writer's reasoning comes from various rhetorical appeals. These appeals include

• Ethos (appealing to the writer’s credibility or morals/values).

• Logos (appealing to logic).

• Pathos (appealing to emotions).

Writers consider how to balance these different appeals within their essays. Most audiences are convinced by logical appeals, and you will soon learn how authors use logical reasoning. However, logical arguments incorporate ethical and emotional appeals. You can appeal to ethos by highlighting your expertise. To incorporate pathos, you can have a well-chosen anecdote as evidence to support your argument. Writers using logical arguments in their essays choose these different appeals by knowing their audience’s values and interests.

Inartistic Proofs

Inartistic proofs are arguments the writer gives in an essay. They are the hard evidence used to support logical arguments.

Facts

Using factual information, such as information from scholarly research or government reports, is crucial for writing a logical argument. If you have credible evidence, your audience will listen to your argument, even if they disagree with you. Make sure the factual information you include in your essay is from reliable sources, presented fairly, and supports your claim.

Statistics

You can use statistics to strengthen a logical argument by providing concrete data about an issue. You will need to interpret this data and explain how it supports your argument. Be careful with how you present statistics in your argument to avoid presenting them in a biased manner. Since there are different ways to interpret data, make sure you understand the statistics you are using.

Expert Testimony

Expert testimonies help in making a logical argument. Expert testimonies are the stories and knowledge that come from personal experience and expertise about the topic. They can come from your own experiences with the topic or another individual's experiences with it. These narratives are compelling because they provide evidence the audience can trust and demonstrate how your topic affects people.

Logical Reasoning in Academic Writing

There are two main types of logical reasoning used in academic writing: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning where you use general statements to form a more specific claim. Writers use deductive reasoning in essays to lead readers to their conclusion. They begin with a broad claim and lead their audience to a specific claim using logical reasoning, using this structure:

1. Statement of a general claim.

2. Statement of another general claim. This claim has a direct connection to your first general claim.

3. Combining the first and second claims to make a specific claim.

Deductive reasoning follows this pattern to form general claims and combine them into a specific claim:

1. X is/does Y.
2. X is/does Z.
3. Therefore, Z is/does Y.

Let’s see a simple example of deductive reasoning to see how general claims form a specific claim.

1. Hot objects burn your skin if you touch them. (General claim)

2. A stove that is on is a hot object. (General claim)

3. Therefore, a stove that is on will burn your skin if you touch it. (Specific claim)

Errors in Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a common form of logic found in argumentation. While it is popular, you will need to make sure that your claims are true and follow the above pattern for your logic to be valid. See the example below to observe errors in deductive reasoning.

1. All cats are orange. (All cats are not orange!)

2. Pumpkins are orange. (The statement is formed around the color orange [Y], not cats [X].)

3. Therefore, all cats are pumpkins. (The two errors above result in this inaccurate claim.)

Deductive Reasoning Example

You can use deductive reasoning to structure the overall argument of a portion of your essay or your entire essay. Thomas Jefferson uses deductive reasoning to structure "The Declaration of Independence." The first general claim is developed in the first section of the essay. For example, in the first two paragraphs, Jefferson argues people have the right to form a new government if it acts tyrannically.

For the second claim, look toward the middle, especially where the topic transitions into a new idea. After two paragraphs, Jefferson's argument shifts toward explaining how King George III is a tyrannical leader.

To identify the final claim, find the argument at the end of the text. In the final paragraph, Jefferson concludes that the colonies have the right to form their own government since King George III does not rule fairly.

Below is the outline of Jefferson's deductive reasoning in his argument.

1. If their current government is tyrannical, people have the right to form a new government.

2. King George III's government is tyrannical.

3. Because King George III's government is tyrannical, the colonies have the right to form a new government.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is another form of logical reasoning commonly found in essays. With inductive reasoning, you use specific details or examples to form a general claim. Let's say you observe a classmate carrying a large instrument case, talking about going to rehearsals, and wearing the school's band t-shirt. Using inductive reasoning, you would use these specific details to form the claim that your classmate is in the school band.

Inductive reasoning is common in academic writing, especially scientific writing. You use inductive reasoning when you want to discuss patterns you observed and form a general claim based on this evidence. For example, scientists conduct clinical experiments on new medical drugs in a trial group. Based on these results, they need to make generalizations on how this drug will affect the general population to argue if the drug is effective.

Errors in Inductive Reasoning

Because inductive reasoning relies on generalizations, it is easier to have a faulty claim because you do not have enough evidence. Let's say you want to argue in an essay that all schools should decrease athletic funding. You argue that funding sports is a waste of money because you observed your school funds sports programs, and the teams always lose. This would be an example of bad inductive reasoning because your experience does not support the claim that all schools should decrease funding. Not all school teams lose their games. Observations and generalizations can help you make logical arguments, but be careful that you have sufficient and correct evidence.

Inductive Reasoning Example

Thomas Jefferson uses inductive reasoning in "The Declaration of Independence" to argue King George III is a tyrannical ruler. Jefferson forms this general claim based on his observations of the King's behavior. He lists 27 examples as his evidence. These examples vary, with multiple examples of ignoring colonial government, enforcing unpopular laws, and forcing colonists to house British soldiers in their homes. The number and variety of examples lead Jefferson to conclude that King George III is a tyrannical ruler.

Structure of Logical Arguments

Beyond forming their claims and reasons, writers also consider the structure of their essays when making logical arguments. One of the most useful methods for structuring logical arguments is based on philosopher Stephen Toulmin's method.

Toulmin Arguments

Toulmin's method of argumentation is a popular structure in advanced English Language exams and academic writing. This structure helps writers anticipate and create complex arguments using logical reasoning. Toulmin's method is useful for arguing about complex situations that lack a concrete solution. There are six main parts to Toulmin's method of argumentation.

1. Claim

   • The claim is the argument you want to prove.

2. Qualifiers

   • Qualifiers are the limits placed on your claim. Because you are arguing about complex situations, the qualifiers moderate your claim.

3. Reason(s)/Evidence

   • You will support your claim with reasons and evidence--remember your artistic and inartistic proofs!

4. Warrants

   • Warrants are the assumptions that support your claim. Arguments can have unsaid assumptions, and you are responsible for stating them.

5. Backing

   • Backing is the evidence for your warrant. Not only do you need evidence for your claim, but you will need evidence for your warrant.

6. Rebuttals

   • Rebuttals are the potential objections to your argument. You will want to anticipate these rebuttals and address them.

Toulmin Argument Example

Considering the popularity of Toulmin's method, let's look at an example. Using the argument that teachers should not assign homework, let's outline the structure of an argument using Toulmin's method.

• Claim: Teachers should not assign homework because it prevents students from pursuing responsibilities outside of school.

• Qualifiers: Not all students have responsibilities outside of school, especially younger students. High school students would have more responsibilities outside of school, and you can qualify the claim to address this population.

• Reasons/evidence: About 30% of students have jobs outside of school,² and about 80% participate in extracurricular activities.³

• Warrant: Homework is time-consuming, which leads to students not fully committing to their responsibilities outside of school.

• Backing: High-school students have an average of 2.7 hours of homework per day.⁴

• Rebuttals: Research shows targeted homework practice on skills learned in class helps students' learning.⁴ However, most homework is not targeted at skills, but a continuation of work started in class.

Here is an example of a paragraph with the above argument based on Toulmin's method.

1. Thomas Jefferson, "The Declaration of Independence," 1776.

2. Chris Kolmar, "High School Job Statistics [2022]," 2022.

3. Kristin Moore and Jennifer Ehrle, "Children’s Environment and Behavior: Participation in Extracurricular Activities," 2000.

4. Challenge Success, "Quality over Quantity: Elements of Effective Homework," 2020.