Michel Foucault Discourse Theory

Foucault Discourse Definition

You have probably heard the term discourse before, but what does it actually mean? In everyday life, discourse refers to any written or spoken text. However, for theorists, it usually means a little more than that.

When discussing Foucault and his discourse theory, the term refers to the use of communication (written or spoken) to construct knowledge and truth. Foucault suggests that the ‘truths’ that shape our lives don’t simply ‘exist’ but are created through discourse.

Fig. 1 - According to Foucault, knowledge and truth are centred on language.

Examples of discourse: Foucault

As you can probably imagine, there are thousands of examples of discourse. Here is a short list just to give you an idea.

• A professor talking to their class

• A newspaper headline or report

• A presidential speech

• A novel

• A magazine cover

• Friends having a conversation

Foucault Discourse Theory

Foucault's discourse theory examines how people express themselves through language and suggests that the structures of power shape how people communicate in society.

Foucault discourse theory summary

Individuals all draw from a shared ‘pool of knowledge’ when communicating. This knowledge pool is typically accepted by the wider society and becomes further legitimised the more people use, share, and distribute it. Over time, this pool of knowledge slowly changes as people add to it and adapt it, meaning the things society deem to be ‘true’ can, and do, change over time.

Discourse theory recognises that certain people, or groups of people, are in a position to influence the pool of knowledge far more easily than others. It is typically people in positions of perceived power who can change and influence what we believe to be ‘true’. The term perceived power has been used here because what is deemed ‘powerful’ can differ across cultures.

Factors that can affect a person’s perceived power include:

• Socio-economic status (wealth and class)

• Occupation

• Education level

• Gender

• Ethnicity and race

Michel Foucault

Michel Foucault (1926-1984) was a French philosopher, sociologist, and historian interested in the construction of knowledge and power through discourse. Foucault believed that discourse is created by those in power for specific reasons and is often used as a form of social control. He is typically associated with the structuralist and post-structuralist movements.

Foucault was critical of those in power, especially the French Bourgeoisie, and stated that those with power could create discourses for their own gain yet were able to conceal (hide) their intentions. I.e., Powerful people in society create knowledge that is eventually considered the norm, and others are unaware they’ve done so!

Foucault was considered a structuralist as he examined the structures of knowledge (here, knowledge is regarded as the object of discourse). Later, he was considered a post-structuralist when he shifted his analysis to the subjects of discourse (the subjects are people!) and questioned how and why discourse could govern the way people think and behave.

Foucault and power

Foucault didn’t believe there was just one form of power. Instead, he recognised several different types, they are:

• Sovereign power

• Disciplinary power

• Pastoral power

• Bio-power

Let’s look at each Foucault theory in a bit more detail.

Sovereign power

This is the form of power you are probably most familiar with. It is the power held by those in positions of authority, such as Queen Elizabeth II, the Prime Minister, or a headteacher.

Disciplinary power

Disciplinary power is related to Foucault’s theory of gaze - the idea that people will regulate their behaviour if they believe they’re being watched. This is the type of power we exercise over ourselves to fit the norm and be an ‘acceptable’ member of society. You could say it’s similar to self-restraint.

Pastoral power

This term has religious roots but isn’t necessarily confined to religion. Pastoral power refers to acting in a certain way to ensure the safety and security of all. For example, it could be said that the police hold pastoral power as they exert power for the good of the wider community (although not all members of society would necessarily agree with this).

Bio-power

Foucault coined the term bio-power to refer to the government’s administration and recording of bio issues, such as birth and death rates, race, class, and gender. Foucault stated that this mode of power impacted how we view ourselves in relation to the wider community.

Foucault Discourse Analysis

Foucauldian discourse analysis (FDA), sometimes called Foucaultian discourse analysis, is a form of discourse analysis with a particular focus on the relationship between power and language. The method is based on Foucault’s theory of discourse and social control and aims to expose how those with power control people through language.

Foucauldian discourse analysis is grounded in constructivism and critical theory. It critiques the power structures in society and aims to understand how language can construct societal knowledge and uphold existing power structures. Unlike traditional discourse analysis, FDA is more critical of the political implications of using language to legitimise power.

How to conduct Foucauldian discourse analysis

In their book Using Foucault’s Methods (1999)¹, Kendall and Wickham outlined five steps for conducting Foucault's discourse analysis. They are:

1. Recognise that discourse is a set of constructed statements that are organised systematically.

2. Identify how and why those statements are constructed.

3. Think about the things that are allowed to be communicated and those that aren't.

4. Reflect on how ‘spaces’ (e.g. newspapers) where new statements are made are created.

5. Think about how practices can be both material and discursive at the same time.

The previous list might look a little daunting to you, so let’s try and make things a little simpler. When conducting Foucauldian discourse analysis, try asking yourself the following questions:

• Is the information being presented as a fact? Is there any space to reflect or question this?

• How is the discourse constructed? Who is included or excluded? Are the sources reliable? Is there any evidence?

• What is normalised in the discourse, and what, or who is made to appear abnormal?

• Who benefits from this discourse?

FDA can examine how powerful and authoritative groups in society use language to express dominance, control others, and make gains for themselves. One of the main purposes of FDA is to expose and weaken the accepted dominant discourses that exclude, oppress, and marginalises members of society.

FIg. 2 - Power and politics go hand-in-hand when it comes to FDA.

Criticisms of Foucault’s theory

Many theorists disagree on what exactly the term ‘discourse’ means, with some saying that Foucault's definition of discourse theory doesn't go far enough. For example, multimodal discourse analysts also examine things such as whole movies, statues, food, and games to examine what these things can reveal about society.

Many discourse theorists also disagree about what is deemed ‘real’ and what is constructed. Extreme constructivists believe that everything we know is constructed by discourse, whereas critical realists believe there is a physical reality, which is represented through discourse.

There are also a few criticisms of Foucault himself which problematises his discourse theory:

• He often excluded women from his studies and disregarded their role throughout history.

• He wasn’t great at taking criticisms and often refused to change his views.