Expressives

So what is a speech act?

A speech act is an utterance that has a purpose. Whenever we speak, we are also carrying out a kind of action. These 'actions' can be referred to as illocutionary acts, which are broken down into five categories: assertive, directive, commissive, expressive and declarative.

What are expressive words in English?

Expressive verbs are words used for the purpose of performing a certain speech act. They can be used to express either positive or negative situations, and are usually centred on the listener. Expressive verbs are more specific than basic verbs, as they are used to express particular actions.

According to Searle and Vanderveken (1985)¹, some examples of expressive verbs include:

- apologising, consoling, congratulating, lamenting, praising, greeting, and welcoming.

These words are used to perform various speech acts; 'Oops, sorry, I didn't see you there', is an apology.

Synonyms for 'expressive'

The adjective 'expressive' has a very similar meaning to 'expressive speech acts.' We can better understand this type of speech act if we look at some synonyms for 'expressive.' Some of these are:

• Meaningful
• Revealing
• Demonstrative
• Eloquent
• Telling
• Emotional
• Suggestive
• Passionate

What is an expressive person?

An expressive person is someone who uses expressive language. This is done by often using expressive speech acts. We'll have a look at what these are next.

Can we define 'expressive speech acts'?

Expressive speech acts are utterances that are spoken to convey the speaker’s emotions and feelings about themselves and the world around them. Depending on the situation, different expressives can be used to communicate different feelings.

What are the different types of expressive speech acts?

According to psycholinguist Herbert Clark (1996)², there are four main types of expressive. These are as follows:

• Thanking
• Apologising
• Congratulating
• Greeting

Let’s take a look at each of these in more detail.

Expressive speech acts examples

Thanking

The act of thanking refers to an expression of gratitude. It is also a way of showing respect and kindness to the listener, letting them know that the speaker appreciates what they have done.

Apologising

The act of apologising refers to an expression or admission of wrongdoing, showing that they regret something they have done or realise they may have caused offence or upset.

But, there are also other ways an apology can be used, not just to take responsibility for something wrong you have done, but also...

...to express sympathy. For example, if someone passes away, it is not uncommon for people to say “I’m sorry for your loss” to the people who are grieving. It is a way of showing that you acknowledger their pain.

Congratulating

The act of congratulating refers to the act of praising someone or joining in with their success. It is a positive way to wish someone happiness and/or celebrate their success.

Greeting

The act of greeting refers to an expression of welcome or acknowledgment.

But wait, that’s not all!

There has been lots of research into the different types of expressive speech acts. Neal Norrick, an American linguist, researched further possible groups of expressive acts in his article Expressive Illocutionary Acts (1978). Norrick explored the idea that expressives can be either positive or negative and came up with nine different types of expressive acts.

We’ve already explored thanking, apologising, congratulating and greeting … So what else did Norrick come up with?

• Condoling

• Deploring/censoring

• Lamenting

• Forgiving

• Boasting

Let’s go through these in more detail!

Condoling

Think of the opposite of congratulating. This refers to when the speaker sympathises with the listener and expresses sadness about a negative event.

Deploring/censoring

This refers to when the speaker tells the listener off for doing/saying something that upsets or angers them. It is a way for the speaker to make the listener aware that their behaviour needs to change and usually results in an apology from the listener.

Lamenting

This refers to when the speaker complains to the listener about negative things happening in their life. This may be because of something the speaker has done themselves, or because of something that someone else has done. It could be something mildly upsetting, such as having a bad day. Or, it could be something more extreme, such as losing a loved one.

Forgiving

This refers to when the speaker is able to stop feeling resentful towards something the listener may have said or done. It is a way for the speaker to put the past behind them and bring themselves peace, instead of holding onto grudges.

Boasting

This refers to when the speaker shows off to the listener about something they have done. It is a way of showing that they are proud or satisfied with themselves.

¹ D. Vanderveken & J. Searle. Foundations of Illocutionary Logic. 1985.

² H. Clark. Using language. 1996.