Typology

Typology Synonym

You might hear language typology referred to as "cross-linguistic typology" or simply "linguistic typology;" any of these terms are appropriate. Otherwise, there aren’t many other synonyms for this field of study.

Fig. 1 - The languages of the world have a lot to offer each other.

You might consider the terms classification, categorization, and arrangement intimately related to typology, though. These all have to go with placing things in groups based on shared characteristics, which is part of what typology strives to do.

Universals and Language Typology

As mentioned above, language universals are patterns seen across languages that linguists believe may be applicable to all languages or at least a subset of languages. Once these patterns are observed, linguists may draw generalizations based on these patterns, which become universals.

Here’s an English example: Paul ate (verb) sushi (object) for lunch.

This example illustrates a pattern seen in languages that follow the VO order. It is a word order universal, which is arguably the most famous language universals thanks to the work of linguist Joseph Greenberg.

Greenberg Universals

Much of what is known and studied in typology comes from Greenberg’s Universals of Language (1963), in which he proposed a set of universals related to roughly thirty languages. Many of these universals relate to word order, like the example above.

Because of his contribution to the field, typological universals are sometimes called Greenberg universals. These are generalizations about a systematic pattern found among the structures of various languages. These patterns might deal with:

• Word structure (morphology)

• Word arrangement (syntax) or

• Word or sound formation (phonology)

Universals may be absolute, meaning they’re without exception, or statistical, which means it’s a tendency and there may be exceptions. The example about VO and nominal modifiers is an absolute universal for this subset of languages that follow VO order; there are no known exceptions.

Typology Example

Typology might study various linguistic systems or specific phenomena found within a single language, or across multiple languages. Here’s an example of typology in action through linguistic research.

Paying attention to the lexical distinctions among participants, Majid et al. found that the various languages tended to distinguish between precise cuts (with words like slice and carve) and less precise breaks (with words like smash or bust).

Fig. 2 - Languages appear to have different verbs like cut, slice, and carve for precise incisions.

The group of researchers concluded that most languages—at least the twenty-eight observed—have a “general solution” to understanding and communicating this concept, and although there is variation, there are significant similarities in the division of these linguistic categories.

Typology is not just concerned with the classification of linguistic phenomena, but typologists typically seek to explain why these patterns or variances occur. Majid et al.’s research suggests that there is predictable regularity in the event categories defined by verbs, and this can be expected across multiple languages.

Types of Language Typology

There are three specific types of language typology:

• Qualitative

• Quantitative

• Theoretical

Qualitative typology deals with the comparison and contrast of languages. It explores cross-linguistic patterns and variances with a focus on structural formation.

Quantitative typology studies the distribution of structural patterns. This typically involves statistical observation of the linguistic phenomenon in question; in other words, drawing conclusions from statistical data.

Theoretical typology explains any variances in qualitative and quantitative characteristics. It may also examine things like language users' intentions and linguistic phenomena not seen in all languages.

The general term language typology typically encompasses all these sub-disciplines.

1. Asifa Majid, James S. Boster, and Melissa Bowerman. "The cross-linguistic categorization of everyday events: A study of cutting and breaking." ScienceDirect. August, 2008.