Old English Language

Old English Language Definition

Old English is the earliest form of the English language. It developed into Middle English, which then evolved into the modern English of today's world. It is useful to learn about Old English because the language had a defining impact on history. Some of the most impactful texts in the English language were also written in Old English, such as the epic poem Beowulf and "The Seafarer."

Fig. 1 - In the 5th Century C.E., Germanic tribes colonized English farmland.

History of the Old English Language

In the 5th century C.E., modern-day England was inhabited by a tribe called the Celts. The Celts were long protected by the Roman military. When the Romans withdrew, the Celts became vulnerable to invasion by Germanic tribes, which gradually colonized England and settled down on its fertile farmland. These people from northern Germany and southern Scandinavia were called Anglo-Saxons, and they brought with them their language—Old English.

Before the arrival of Germanic invaders, the Celts spoke various Celtic languages. Over many centuries, the language of the Celts mostly died out, and the only one that survives today is Gaelic, which is still spoken in small communities of Ireland and Scotland.

Influence of Christianity

At the end of the 6th century C.E., Christian missionaries like Saint Augustine worked to convert the pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Most were converted by the end of the 7th century. In addition to changing the Anglo-Saxons' beliefs, the missionaries also changed their language.

Before the arrival of the Christians, the Celts and Anglo-Saxons wrote letters that could be scratched into stones. These letters are called runes and are characterized by easy-to-carve straight lines. The Christians brought with them the Latin language and its rounded Roman alphabet. As a result, Old English developed with a Germanic base mixed with Scandinavian and Celtic loanwords and a profound Latin influence.

Fig. 2 - Anglo-Saxon runes.

Norman Conquest

In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, led an invasion of England called the Norman Conquest. The arrival of these newcomers added a French influence on the English language and ushered in the era of Middle English. Most scholars consider the end of Old English around 1150.

Father of Old English Language

During the time of St. Augustine's missionary work, the earliest English poet, Cædmon, was also hard at work. In the book Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731 C.E.), the historian Bede told the story of Cædmon's life. Cædmon was an illiterate herdsman who tended to the animals at a Northumbrian monastery. The story goes that he had a dream one night in which a man asked him to sing about creation.

Cædmon, who could never sing before, began singing verses about God. The abbess St. Hilda thought God blessed Cædmon, and he became a monk and produced religious poetry. He is best known for his Old English poem "Cædmon's Hymn" (c. 680), which established the patterns of Anglo-Saxon verse and is considered the oldest surviving English poem.

Features of the Old English Language

The following traits characterized old English:

• Unfixed word order

• Many inflections

• Long vowels

• Short, one-syllable words

• Gendered words (feminine, masculine, or neutral)

• Past and present tenses

Old English Dialects

There are four known dialects of Old English:

1. Northumbrian

   Spoken in northern England and southeastern Scotland, the Northumbrian dialect was known for characteristics like the use of the short a instead of æ. For example, in the West Saxon dialect, the word father was fæder, but in the Northumbrian dialect, it was fader.

2. Mercian

   Spoken in central England, the Mercian dialect was quite similar to the Northumbrian dialect. For example, the word means behaldeê means guard in the Mercian dialect, and behealdan means guard in the Northumbrian dialect.

3. Kentish in southeastern England

   In southeastern England, people spoke the Kentish dialect. It was known for its nasal, high quality, and its similarity to West Saxon. For example, in Kentish, the word man is man while in West Saxon, it is mon.

4. West Saxon

   Spoken in southwestern England, West Saxon eventually became the dominant Old English dialect. It was the most popular for writing manuscripts. As a result, most surviving Old English texts are in West Saxon.

Literary Significance of Old English

Old English was full of descriptive language, allowing writers to craft poetry rich with vivid imagery. For instance, lots of Old English poetry was full of descriptions of mythical creatures and religious ideology, like the line below from the Old English poem "The Wanderer" (late 10th century).²

The use of Old English to create descriptive, moving English texts is one of the characteristics that makes it so significant in the history of the English language.

Fig. 3 - Old English had a profound literary impact.

Old English Alphabet

Old English used a different set of letters than modern English. Most of the letters came from the Latin alphabet brought by the Christian missionaries, although two letters, Ƿ and Þ came from the Rune alphabet and two of the Latin letters were modified in design: (Æ, Ð).

The Old English alphabet contained these letters:

A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U X Y Ƿ Þ Ð Æ

Old English Examples

Old English has different spellings, pronunciations, and inflections than Modern English. However, it laid the groundwork for the linguistic features of Middle and Modern English. For example, consider the following comparison between the Christian Lord's Prayer in Old English and Modern English.³

Although Old English used different letters, some of its vocabulary, sentence structures, and grammatical patterns are recognizable compared to Modern English. These parallels underscore Old English's enduring influence on the English language.

References

¹ J.R.R Tolkien. Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary. 2014.

² David Crystal. "Old English," The British Library. 2018.

³ Siân Echard (Translator). "The Wanderer," University of British Columbia.

^{4 "}Old English Language." McGill University.