Sand Creek Massacre

Key Events Leading to the Sand Creek Massacre

Several factors contributed to the escalation of tensions between Native Americans and European settlers in the years leading up to the Sand Creek Massacre. Key events that played a role in the eventual conflict include:

• Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851): This treaty established boundaries for various Native American tribes, including the Cheyenne and Arapaho. However, tensions continued to rise as European settlers encroached upon the designated territories.
• Pikes Peak Gold Rush (1858-1861): In search of gold, thousands of settlers flooded into Native American territories in Colorado, leading to increased competition for resources and heightened conflict.
• Colorado War (1863-1865): An ongoing conflict known as the Colorado War or Cheyenne War erupted between Native American tribes and settlers, primarily as a result of boundary disputes and broken treaties.

In the years leading up to the Sand Creek Massacre, tensions remained high between Native tribes and settlers, particularly as resources dwindled and intercultural mistrust deepened.

The Attack on Cheyenne and Arapaho Camps

On November 29, 1864, the Colorado militia forces, led by Colonel John Chivington, attacked the Cheyenne and Arapaho camps at Sand Creek. The camp, which was led by Black Kettle, a Cheyenne chief, is believed to have been largely non-combative and to have sought peaceful negotiations. Despite this apparent desire for peace, the militia forces ruthlessly attacked and killed an estimated 150-200 Native Americans, most of whom were women, children, and elderly civilians.

Chivington initially reported the attack as a military victory and a necessary action against hostile Native American forces. However, the truth eventually emerged, and an investigation conducted by the U.S. government revealed the devastating reality of the massacre. Ultimately, the Sand Creek Massacre is widely considered an act of genocide, and much controversy surrounded Chivington's actions as well as the broader US government's role in its aftermath.

In the years following the Sand Creek Massacre, the event was widely regarded as one of the darkest chapters in U.S. history. To this day, it is remembered as a tragic reminder of the violence and injustice faced by Native American tribes during the westward expansion of the United States.

Examining the Cause of the Sand Creek Massacre

Relationships between Native Americans and settlers significantly contributed to the Sand Creek Massacre. The underlying tensions can be broken down into several categories, including:

• Land disputes
• Broken treaties
• Cultural differences
• Competition for resources

Land disputes often resulted from the territorial boundaries established by treaties, which were frequently violated by settlers. Settlers infringed upon Native American lands, leading to increased pressure on resources such as hunting grounds and water sources. Moreover, broken treaties by both the US government and European settlers resulted in growing mistrust and resentment between the parties.

Cultural differences added to the tensions between Native Americans and settlers. Misunderstandings and differing beliefs often led to conflict, with Europeans imposing their customs and religions on the indigenous population. This cultural imposition was exacerbated by the westward expansion of the United States, during which the Native American way of life was frequently undermined.

Finally, competition for resources played a key role in escalating tensions. As settlers moved into Native American territories, they competed for resources such as food, water, and land, leading to further conflict and antagonism.

Role of the US Government and Military

The role of the US government and military in contributing to the Sand Creek Massacre cannot be understated. Key factors in their culpability include:

• Failure to enforce treaties
• Military involvement in conflicts
• Governmental policies towards Native Americans

One of the main causes of the Sand Creek Massacre was the US government's failure to enforce treaties made with Native American tribes. These treaties were regularly violated by European settlers, and the government often turned a blind eye to these transgressions. This lack of enforcement exacerbated tensions between Native Americans and settlers and resulted in an environment ripe for conflict.

Military involvement in conflicts between settlers and Native Americans further escalated the problems. As tensions rose, military presence increased, which often led to violence. The Sand Creek Massacre itself was carried out by militia forces led by Colonel John Chivington, a military commander. This attack on the Cheyenne and Arapaho camps demonstrated the devastating consequences of military actions in furthering the conflict.

Lastly, governmental policies towards Native Americans during this period were heavily influenced by the desire for westward expansion and the so-called "Manifest Destiny" ideology. This belief held that the United States was destined to spread across the continent, often at the expense of Native American tribes. Policies that supported removal and relocation of Native Americans from ancestral lands contributed to the displacement and suffering of these populations, culminating in events like the Sand Creek Massacre.

Notable Individuals: Cheyenne Sand Creek Massacre Victims and Perpetrators

Various key figures played significant roles in both the tragic incident at Sand Creek and the events that transpired around this appalling massacre. Understanding the prominent individuals involved in the Sand Creek Massacre, including Cheyenne tribe members, government officials, and military leaders, provides crucial context to this dark chapter in United States history.

John Evans: Colorado's Territorial Governor

As the second Territorial Governor of Colorado, John Evans (1814-1897) played a crucial role in the events surrounding the Sand Creek Massacre. Evans, a physician and politician, was appointed as the Territorial Governor by President Lincoln in 1862, during which time tensions between settlers and Native Americans, particularly the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes, were growing regularly.

John Evans' leadership faced several crucial challenges, including addressing the ongoing conflicts between Native Americans and settlers, ensuring Colorado's safety and economic development, and handling the state's response to the American Civil War, which was unfolding at the same time. Some of the significant actions taken by Evans in regards to the Native American conflict include:

• Requesting federal intervention: Evans appealed to Washington to provide military support to protect settlers from potential Native American attacks.
• Establishing peace talks: He initiated peace negotiations with Native American tribal leaders and sought to persuade Colorado's legislature to provide resources and protection for Native Americans who would agree to cease hostilities.
• Establishing Camp Weld: To engage in peace talks with Cheyenne and Arapaho leaders, Evans used Camp Weld, a military encampment near Denver.

Following the Sand Creek Massacre, Governor John Evans faced severe criticism for his handling of the situation. While Evans was removed from office in the aftermath of the attack, no direct evidence has been found to prove that he ordered the massacre or had prior knowledge of Colonel Chivington's intentions. Nevertheless, his role in the events leading up to the incident has been scrutinised for its potential influence on the massacre.

Colonel John Chivington's Militia Actions

Colonel John Chivington (1821-1894), a former Methodist minister, was an influential military figure during the Sand Creek Massacre. As the commanding officer of the volunteer militia force that attacked the Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment, Chivington played a direct role in the brutal incident. His actions, both before and after the attack, have been subject to widespread condemnation and analysis.

Some crucial aspects of Colonel Chivington's militant actions related to the Sand Creek Massacre include:

• Creation of the 3rd Colorado Cavalry: Chivington played a key role in the formation of the 3rd Colorado Cavalry, which was primarily composed of volunteers responding to the advance of Confederate troops during the Civil War.
• Aggressive stance towards Native Americans: Chivington adopted a hardline stance against the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes, openly advocating for their removal or extermination.
• Attack on the Cheyenne and Arapaho: Despite initial peace talks and assurances, Chivington led his troops to brutally attack the Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment at Sand Creek, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 150-200 men, women, and children.
• Manipulation of reports: In the aftermath of the attack, Chivington attempted to portray the incident as a military victory and suppress the truth of its brutal nature. However, the situation eventually came to light following testimony from soldiers and Native American survivors, leading to public outrage.

While Chivington never faced legal consequences for his actions at Sand Creek, his reputation suffered considerably. Despite an initial surge in popularity following the massacre, public opinion eventually turned against him as the true nature of the attack was exposed, and his military and political career ended in disgrace.

Sand Creek Massacre Timeline: Key Dates and Events

Understanding the Sand Creek Massacre requires examining the timeline of events that led to the tragic incident as well as the aftermath that followed. This includes a thorough assessment of events that built up to the massacre and the resulting consequences.

Prelude to the Massacre

Before delving into the details of the Sand Creek Massacre, it is essential to explore the significant events and key dates leading up to the incident. This will provide a rich context in which to understand the factors that contributed to the escalation of tensions between the settlers and the Native American tribes.

• 1851: The Treaty of Fort Laramie is signed, setting the boundaries for various Native American tribes, including the Cheyenne and Arapaho. However, this treaty does little to prevent tensions from rising as European settlers continue encroaching on the designated territories.
• 1858-1861: The Pikes Peak Gold Rush prompts a significant influx of settlers into Native American territories in Colorado, which intensifies competition for resources and heightens conflict.
• 1862: John Evans is appointed as Colorado's second Territorial Governor by President Lincoln, during a period of ongoing conflict between settlers and Native American tribes.
• 1863-1865: The Colorado War (also known as the Cheyenne War) unfolds, primarily as a result of boundary disputes and broken treaties.
• 1864: Throughout the year, Governor John Evans makes efforts to address the growing conflict between Native tribes and settlers, including calling for federal intervention, initiating peace talks, and establishing Camp Weld.

The actions taken by Evans leading up to the massacre, as well as the broader historical context of land disputes, broken treaties, and escalating tensions, all contributed to the devastating incident at Sand Creek.

The Attack and Its Aftermath

Following the significant prelude events, the timeline of the Sand Creek Massacre itself and its aftermath are important to consider for a complete understanding of this tragic chapter in United States history.

• November 29, 1864: Colonel John Chivington leads the Colorado militia forces to attack the Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment at Sand Creek. An estimated 150-200 Native Americans, primarily women, children, and the elderly, are brutally killed during the attack.
• December 1864 - February 1865: Chivington initially reports the attack as a military victory and attempts to suppress any negative information regarding the massacre. However, eyewitness testimonies from soldiers and Native American survivors slowly emerge, bringing the truth of the brutal incident to light.
• 1865: Several official investigations are launched by the U.S. government to examine the Sand Creek Massacre. These investigations condemn Chivington's actions and expose the massacre's true nature.
• 1867: The Medicine Lodge Treaty is signed, attempting to establish peace between the U.S. government and the southern Plains tribes, including the Cheyenne and Arapaho. This treaty designates new reservation lands for these tribes in present-day Oklahoma.
• 1894: Colonel John Chivington dies in disgrace, his military and political career having been severely tarnished by his actions during the Sand Creek Massacre.
• 2007: The Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site is established by the U.S. government to honour the victims, survivors, and their descendants, and to educate the public about this devastating event in American history.

The Sand Creek Massacre continues to have a lasting impact on the collective memory of the United States, serving as a poignant reminder of the violence and injustice faced by Native American tribes during the westward expansion of the nation.

Uncovering Sand Creek Massacre Facts

Digging deeper into the Sand Creek Massacre reveals a myriad of horrifying details and unfathomable suffering experienced by the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes. Examining the brutal events at the site and the lasting impact on the lives of the affected individuals and communities is vital to comprehend the true extent of this harrowing atrocity.

The Atrocities Witnessed at Sand Creek

The scale and brutality of the Sand Creek Massacre cannot be overstated, as the event saw senseless acts of violence and inhumanity carried out against innocent Native American civilians. Among the numerous chilling accounts and grim facts that document the incident are:

• Violent executions: Members of the Colorado militia indiscriminately killed unarmed men, women, and children, with many victims shot down as they attempted to flee the chaos or seek shelter.
• Mutilation of the deceased: The attackers at Sand Creek did not stop with killing their victims; they went on to mutilate and desecrate the bodies of the dead in appalling acts of savagery. Reports indicate that some soldiers removed body parts as trophies or souvenirs.
• False assurances of safety: In the days leading up to the massacre, Cheyenne chief Black Kettle had engaged in peace talks with the U.S. authorities, believing that the Sand Creek camp would be safe from military action. However, this assurance was tragically broken when the Colorado militia launched the brutal attack.
• Distortion of facts: In the immediate aftermath of the event, Colonel John Chivington manipulated reports of the massacre to make it appear as a military victory – a necessary action against alleged hostile forces. The true extent of the tragedy only came to light much later as the truth was gradually exposed.

These bone-chilling facts of the Sand Creek Massacre not only serve as a testament to the barbaric nature of the event but also highlight the need for continued examination and learning to prevent such atrocities from occurring again.

Impact on Native American Communities

The Sand Creek Massacre left a permanent scar on the lives of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes and the broader Native American communities. The consequences of the massacre are evident in several key aspects:

• Physical and emotional trauma: The violent nature of the attack led to significant physical injuries and emotional trauma for the surviving members of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes. Families were torn apart, and relationships within the communities were disrupted, leaving a deep-rooted sense of loss and grief.
• Displacement and disruption: The fallout of the massacre made living at Sand Creek untenable, forcing the surviving members of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes to relocate. This involuntary displacement caused further disruption in their lives as they struggled to find new homes and rebuild their livelihoods.
• Erosion of trust in the U.S. government: The breach of assurances that led to the Sand Creek Massacre left the Native Americans with an overwhelming sense of betrayal and distrust towards the U.S authorities. This rupture in trust had lasting implications for future negotiations and peace efforts between the U.S. government and Native American tribes.
• Continued conflict: The massacre at Sand Creek served as a catalyst for further conflict between the Native American tribes and the U.S government. In the aftermath of Sand Creek, many Native tribes were determined to avenge the atrocity and sought to engage in renewed hostilities with the settlers and the military authorities.

Through examining the devastating effects of the Sand Creek Massacre on the Native American populations, it becomes clear that the repercussions of this dark chapter in U.S. history extended far beyond the numbers of lives lost.

Consequences of the Sand Creek Massacre

The Sand Creek Massacre left a lasting impact on the United States and its relationship with Native American tribes. Perhaps the most significant consequences relating to the tragic event involve the government investigations and public outrage that followed, as well as the long-term effects on the relations between the US government and Native American communities.

Government Investigations and Outrage

The brutal events at Sand Creek did not go unnoticed or uninvestigated. Reports of the attack eventually reached the US government through various avenues, including testimonies from soldiers who were present during the massacre and accounts from surviving Native Americans. This led to several government investigations and a wave of public outrage against the perpetrators of the massacre.

Key aspects of these consequences include:

• Congressional investigations: Following the exposure of the Sand Creek Massacre, the US Congress launched multiple investigations into the event. In 1865, the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, a congressional panel, conducted an investigation and declared the attack a "foul and dastardly massacre" rather than a military engagement.
• Army investigation: The US Army also investigated the Sand Creek Massacre, with Major General Samuel Ryan Curtis providing a scathing report on the actions of Chivington and his militia forces. This report condemned Chivington's orders and expressed horror at the massacre.
• Public opinion: As details of the Sand Creek Massacre became more widely known, public opinion turned against Colonel Chivington and Governor John Evans. Both men faced severe criticism for their actions, and the stain on their reputations would echo throughout their lives. The massacre also influenced broader public opinion on US-Native American relations, with many considering it a dark chapter in American history and a shameful act of betrayal by the US government.
• Policy changes: In response to the Sand Creek Massacre, the US government made efforts to change its policy towards Native American relations. The Peace Policy of President Ulysses S. Grant, which focused on promoting peace with Native American tribes and encouraging assimilation, can be partly attributed to the backlash following the massacre.

These investigations and the accompanying outrage served not only to condemn the actions of those involved in the Sand Creek Massacre but also laid the groundwork for changes in relations between the United States and the Native American tribes.

Long-term Effects on US-Native Relations

The Sand Creek Massacre proved to be a crucial turning point in the history of US-Native American relations, leaving a lasting impact on the trust and relationships between the two groups for generations to come. The legacy of the massacre can be observed in several long-term effects:

• Broken trust: The betrayal inherent in the massacre, particularly given Chief Black Kettle's initial assurances of safety, fostered a profound distrust of the US government among Native American tribes. For many, the event reaffirmed the perception of the US authorities as untrustworthy and manipulative in their dealings with Native tribes.
• Increased violence: In the immediate aftermath of the Sand Creek Massacre, several Native American tribes sought to take revenge on the perpetrators and affiliated forces, leading to increased hostilities in the region. While some tribes ultimately sought peace with the US government, the enmity borne of Sand Creek rippled through communities for years to come.
• Influence on future treaties: The devastating consequences of the massacre informed subsequent efforts to negotiate treaties between the US government and Native American tribes, such as the Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867. The Sand Creek Massacre underscored the importance of sincerity and good faith in negotiations, as well as the need to protect Native tribes' rights and land.
• Role in American memory: The Sand Creek Massacre remains an indelible part of American history, contributing to an ongoing debate on the appropriate portrayal of settlers' relationships with Native Americans during westward expansion. Discussions about the role of the US government, the military, and settlers in these events continue to inform modern interpretations of this period in history.

Ultimately, the long-term impact of the Sand Creek Massacre extends beyond the immediate aftermath of the event. It continues to hold considerable influence in the realm of US-Native relations and our collective memory of the past, with key lessons regarding trust, betrayal, and violence that reverberate through history.