Al Andalus

Al-Andalus Map

See the Al-Andalus maps below to see how Muslim rule expanded and then contracted in Spain before ending in 1492.

Fig 1 - Maps showing the areas of Muslim rule in Al-Andalus at different periods.

A Short History of Al-Andalus

At its peak, Al-Andalus consisted of nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula. There are a couple of legends as to why Muslims invaded Spain, but the real reasons are the subject of scholar speculation. What it is indisputable is that they conquered much of it and maintained their control for hundreds of years–until a Christian resurgence gradually regained the territory before expelling Muslims from Spain entirely.

Initial Conquista

In 711, a Muslim invading force landed in southern Spain near Gibraltar. They were led by the general Tariq ibn Ziyad. In 712, they defeated an army led by Visigoth King Rodrigo (or Roderic). Historians believe Rodrigo was killed in this battle.

After this, the Muslim forces advanced quickly. In some cases, cities resisted the invaders, but others opted for peace agreements. In towns that agreed to Muslim rule, local rule was largely maintained, and Christians were allowed to continue practicing their religion as long as they paid an annual tribute tax like the jizya, common in Muslim controlled areas.

The areas that became Al-Andalus were conquered by armies loyal to the Umayyad Dynasty of Damascus. After Damascus was taken by the Abbasid Dynasty in 756, an Umayyad prince fled to Al-Andalus and established an independent caliphate based in Córdoba.

Fig 2 - King Rodrigo preparing for battle against the invading Islamic forces.

Legends for the Cause of the Invasion

There are two main legends for the reason behind the invasion of Al-Andalus.

The first is that the governor of a province just across the Straights of Gibraltar called on North African Muslim forces to invade. Why? Because King Rodrigo seduced his daughter after watching her bathe in a river near the city of Toledo.

In another, there was a tower containing an urn with a prophecy about the Muslim invasion. Spanish kings kept the tower locked and allowed no one to enter. According to the legend, the invasion would occur if the tower and urn were opened. Rodrigo opened the tower, prompting the prophecy to come true.

Historians doubt the validity of either of these legends, believing them to have been made up later by inhabitants to explain the conquest.

Al-Andalus at its Peak

By 720, Al-Andalus extended throughout the Iberian Peninsula almost uncontested. A small sliver of land in the mountainous northern Spain remained free of Muslim rule. Muslims had even invaded southern Gaul (present day France) but were defeated at Poitier by Charles Martel in 732.

Fragmentation and Reconquista of Al-Andalus

The Umayyad leadership in the city of Córdoba maintained control of Al-Andalus as a caliphate until around 1031, when the empire began to fragment into smaller states and competing kingdoms, known as Taifas.

In 1085, Toledo fell to the resurgent Christian kingdom of León and Castile. After 1085, first the Almoravids and then the Almohads, rising Muslim powers in North Africa, asserted control over the smaller Al-Andalus for nearly 200 years.

However, in 1212, the Almohads were defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. By 1248, Seville had also fallen to the Christian Reconquista. Only the area around Granada, in the southern tip of the peninsula, remained under Muslim rule.

In 1492, Granada surrendered, completing the Christian Reconquista and marking the end of Al-Andalus.

Al-Andalus Culture

Most of the Muslim population that invaded and settled in Al-Andalus were Berber tribesmen from the Maghreb, or the northwestern coast of Africa. Some soldiers came from Egypt and Syria and contributed to the Al-Andalus culture. These groups are usually lumped together under the umbrella term Moors, used by the Spanish to describe the Islamic Al-Andalus culture.

• Despite Islamic rule, actual culture in Al-Andalus was a blend of Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The diversity of religion and ethnicity led to the cultural prosperity of Al-Andalus.

Many more people in Al-Andalus were literate than other areas of medieval Europe. The Muslim leadership sought to make Al-Andalus culture one that would rival the intellectual achievements of the Abbasid Empire. Great libraries and a university were constructed in Córdoba to rival the House of Wisdom in Baghdad–many significant works of scholarship and philosophy emerged from the city.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system from India reached the area by the 11th century, introduced by Arabs. It is for this reason, the number system we use today is commonly called Arabic numerals: 1, 2, 3…

The variety of Romance influenced languages spoken by the native peoples of the Iberian Peninsula were then influenced by Arabic. By the end of Al-Andalus rule, its inhabitants had developed a unique dialect of Arabic, known as Andalusian Arabic, from which several words entered the Spanish and Portuguese languages.

Art and Architecture in Al-Andalus Culture

Art and culture flourished in Al-Andalus even after the peak of Muslim power.

The Great Mosque of Córdoba, now a Catholic Cathedral, was built in 785 and later expanded. The Great Mosque of Seville, also later turned into a Catholic Cathedral, was built under Almohad rule afterwards. The walled palace city of Madinat al-Zahra and the reconstructed Roman bridge over the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba are other examples of architectural achievements of the Al-Andalus culture. Contracted Muslim architects erected many buildings and churches in the Christian areas of Spain, which show the Moorish influence on Spanish culture.

There was also lots of art that flowed out of the areas of Al-Andalus, including elaborate gold and ivory work. Many of these were produced in workshops sponsored by the Muslim rulers of Al-Andalus and given as gifts to diplomats and foreign guests. Many remain on display in museums and churches across Europe.

Fig. 3 - Photo of the Grand Mosque turned Cathedral at Cordoba.

Al-Andalus Islam

The Islamic population of Al-Andalus consisted of an Arab elite and ruling class and a second class of Berbers from North Africa. Below them on the social structure were Muladíes, the demographic group that constituted most of the population of Al-Andalus.

Non-Muslims and Al-Andalus Islam

Like many other Islamic Empires, Al-Andalus was characterized by religious tolerance to a degree. Christians living under the rule of Al-Andalus Islam were known as Mozarabs, and made up around 15% of the population. Jews are thought to have made up around 5% of the population. They adopted many Arab and Muslim customs while maintaining their religions. They were required to pay the jizya.

There is debate among historians about how non-Muslims were treated in Al-Andalus. Some believe they coexisted rather peacefully, and there is much evidence that medieval Spain was an important center of Jewish life, especially compared to much of the rest of Europe at the time.

After the Almohads assumed control in Al-Andalus around 1147, they adopted a more fundamentalist Islam and repressive policies towards non-Muslims, leading to many Christians and Jews fleeing the remaining lands of Al-Andalus in this period.

Fig 4 - Depiction of a Jewish priest telling the story of passover in Al-Andalus.

Women in Al-Andalus

Some Andalusian women became well known in their time as scholars and poets. Women related to the ruling class sometimes played influential roles in politics by influenced their husbands, fathers, or sons.

Technically, the role of women in Al-Andalus in public life was restricted by the rules of Sharia Law. However, in practice, these rules were not always strictly applied.

Historians generally conclude that women in Al-Andalus had rights and status equal to if not superior to those in the Christian areas of Spain, and better off than women in Muslim lands in North Africa and the Middle East.

Muslim women in Al-Andalus did receive more privileges than non-Muslim women, but non-Muslim women in Al-Andalus were better off than Muslim women in the Christian areas of Spain. Also, non-Muslim women were allowed to marry Muslim men, and doing so was a path to gaining what was considered as additional status and privileges.

Al-Andalus Significance

While later European history, especially in strongly Catholic Spain, remembered Al-Andalus and the rule of the Moors as a dark spot in their history. The reality is Moors made tremendous contributions to Spanish culture, a testament to Al-Andalus's significance.

Among the contributions of Al-Andalus is the introduction of Arabic numerals, algebra, and the philosophical and literary contributions of scholars, writers, and poets from the Muslim era. The architectural sites mentioned above stand as further symbols of Al-Andalus's significance and impact on the landscape. The Spanish language adopted many words influenced by Arabic that continue to be used today.

Farmers in Al-Andalus also introduced crops like oranges, saffron, sugarcane, rice, cotton, and silk that remain grown in Spain today. The use of many spices and herbs in Spanish cuisine also can be traced to the Al-Andalus era. Trade during the Al-Andalus era also created links between Spain, North Africa, the Middle East, and China that continued long after its fall.

Therefore, the significance of Al-Andalus today is the vast cultural impact the period had on the long-term development of Spanish culture.