Russian Empire

Russian Empire: History

The Russian Empire had its roots in ancient Rus known as Kievan Rus (879-1240).

Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus comprised important historic cities such as Novgorod, Minsk, and Kiev (Kyiv in Ukrainian spelling). Therefore, this ancient state was the ancestor of present-day Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. It was populated by various East Slavic tribes. Many of the events at this time were described in the Primary Chronicle also known as the Tale of Bygone Years.

Fig. 1 - Rurik the Varangian, 1672

According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian Prince Rurik began his rule over Kievan Rus by establishing himself in Novgorod. Rurik's descendants ruled both Kievan and Moscovite Rus and a number of other lands until the 17th century. Varangians were Scandinavian Vikings that settled in this area.

• In 988, Kievan Rus became Orthodox Christian in line with the official religion of the Byzantine Empire. This conversion to Christianity of pagan East Slavs occurred under Prince Vladimir I the Great.
• The first codified law of this ancient state was known as Russkaia Pravda (Russian Truth).
• Under the leadership of Prince Yaroslav I the Wise, the newly Christian state built many churches, including Saint Sophia in Novgorod and Kiev, inspired by the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium.
• Christianity served as a unifying political force in Kievan Rus.
• This time was the Golden Age of this ancient state.

Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde

Eventually, Kievan Rus underwent fragmentation after 1132 due to political infighting and the relative decline of its ally, Byzantium. In 1237, the Mongol army invaded Kievan Rus, and in 1240, Kiev fell to the leader of the Golden Horde, Batu Khan. The Mongols dominated this region until the late 15th century.

Fig. 2 - Batu Khan, a Medieval drawing from China, 14th century.

Russian Empire: Religion and Expansion Timeline

Fig. 3 - Moscoviae Imperivm, Muscovite Russia, Giovanni Antonio Magini, 1608.

The Rise of the Russian Empire

For many reasons, the center of medieval Rus moved to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Moscovite Rus, or simply Muscovy.

Muscovite Russia

Moscow was also ruled by the Rurikid Dynasty which began in Novgorod and ruled over Kievan Rus. At this time, Russia was a vassal of the Mongols. The decisive victory in the Kulikovo Battle (1380) over the Mongols did not end their rule immediately but weakened it. In the 1480s, the Russian state gained independence after the Great Stand on the Ugra River.

Fig. 4 - Grand Duke of Moscow, Ivan III, 1672.

In Russian historiography, the rule of Ivan III (1462–1505) is known as the Gathering of the Russian Lands after centuries of fragmentation.

Effectively, this time can be considered the foundation of the Russian Empire even though this term was not used until the 1700s. Ivan III was a shrewd ruler who strengthened the state internally and ensured that other lesser rulers in the region acknowledged his supremacy. Moscovite Rus gained control of the Russian lands by the late 15th century, including the cities Novgorod, Tver, and Riazan.

The results of Ivan's rule were:

• The end of the Golden Horde vassalage
• Consolidation of the Russian lands
• The establishment of the Russian state

Exploration of Siberia

Russian eastward expansion continued with Tsar Ivan IV's conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan from the Tatar Khan in 1552-1556. In 1581, Cossack Yermak, a military leader, began his campaign into Siberia also during the reign of Ivan IV. Siberia eventually became a part of Russia too. Overall, the period between the rule of Ivan IV and Peter I is sometimes the Tsardom of Russia.

The Russian Empire: Locations

Between 1721 and 1917, the Russian Empire became one of the largest countries in the world.

The Baltic

Victory in the Great Northern War (1700-1721) allowed Russia to become the dominant force in the Baltic region while significantly weakening Sweden. It was in 1721 that Peter began to refer to himself as Emperor, making Russia an Empire.

Fig. 5 - A Small Atlas of the Russian Empire (1796)

Poland

In the period between 1782-1792, Poland underwent three partitions by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. As a result, a significant part of Poland was ruled by the Russian Empire until the Russian Revolution. This partition occurred as the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth gradually lost dominance in the region. Indeed, a century earlier, it was Poland that invaded Russia and occupied Moscow in the early 1600s.

Fig. 6 - Peter I the Great, Valentin Serov, 1970.

Crimea, the Caucasus, and Finland

Catherine II the Great, a ruler of German descent, acquired Crimea for Russia in 1783. Crimea served as a strategic location on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. A strategic expansion also occurred into the Caucasus region. For example, in 1801, Georgia became part of the Russian Empire. Georgia was a fellow Orthodox Christian land suffering repeated attacks by the Ottomans and the Persians. Since the mid-1500s, Georgian rulers petitioned the Russian tsars for protection. The Russian Empire then incorporated Finland in 1809 and granted it autonomy.

The Balkans

As was the case with Georgia, Russia was perceived as a powerful defender of Orthodox Christians. In 1877-1878, the Russian Empire won the Russo-Turkish War against the Ottomans. The result of Russia's victory was independence obtained by a number of states, including Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

Fig. 7 - The Alaska Purchase check, 1867

North America

Since the late 1700s, Russia even had settlements in North America, including Alaska, Fort Ross in California, and a number of outposts in Hawaii. These settlements were known as Russian America. In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to the United States.

Russian Empire: Aftermath

The weakness of the Russian monarchy, the First World War, and civil unrest contributed to the success of the Russian Revolution (1917). The radical left-wing Bolsheviks overthrew the short-lived Provisional Government (July-November 1917), which replaced Russia's last Tsar, Nicholas II.

The Soviet Union

The Russian Civil War (1917-1921) followed. As a result of these turbulent events, a number of territories, such as Poland and Finland, gained independence. However, the new state, the Soviet Union, or the USSR, (1922-1991) regained many of the former lands of the Russian Empire despite the difference in ideology.