Sinicization

Sinicization Policy

Sinicization, like other historical policies of imperialism, takes the form of either diplomacy or armed conflict. Every Chinese dynasty implemented sinicization, either through foreign expansionism like the Yuan Dynasty or through inward centralization indicative of the Ming Dynasty.

Inward Sinicization Policies

Since the 3rd century CE fall of the Han Dynasty, China's principal Classical Era civilization, Chinese dynasties continually rose and fractured into warring states. Invasions from steppe nomads and neighboring states further stoked the fires of chaos in early Medieval China's history. The warring Three Kingdoms period was followed by the Sixteen Kingdoms period, and then the turbulent Northern and Southern Dynasties era from 420 to 589 CE.

The Sui Dynasty finally unified China in the late 6th century, but its reign would be short-lived. Despite, or because of the chaos of internal conflict and foreign invasion in China, the descendants of the Huaxia people recognized a need to preserve their cultural identity as Han people. The term "huaxia" itself is not a term created by historians and assigned to an East Asian ethnic group; it was a term created by the early agriculturalists of China to describe themselves as civilized in contrast to their neighbors.

Medieval Tang Dynasty portrait of Confucius by Chinese artist Wu Daozi. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

This preservation of culture often became pressure on neighboring ethnic groups to conform or assimilate to the Han way of life. Migrants soon found themselves sinicized to Han customs. At the highest level, Medieval Chinese administrators were often chosen through rigorous examinations based on Confucian education, an education familiar to the elite of the Han Chinese. This pressure alone forced non-Han Chinese people to assimilate to Han customs, if only to gain some governmental representation.

Aspects of Han Chinese culture spread through sinicization. Non-ethnic Han Chinese people began wearing hanfu style clothing, and began writing in the hanyu Chinese writing system (the traditional Chinese writing system that lasted until the 20th century).

Outward Sinicization Policies

China continued to expand outwards during the Medieval Era. Modern-day Chinese provinces to the west and south fell under Han Chinese influence. The land around the Gulf of Tonkin became progressively sinicized; the Guizhou region to the southwest became inhabited by Chinese soldiers who intermarried with local women, ingrained their Han culture within families in unfamiliar lands.

Portrait depicting Kublai Khan, creator of the Yuan Dynasty. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

In 1271, Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, led his Mongolian horde in conquering the Song Dynasty of China. Surprisingly, this did not slow down the sinicization of Han culture into foreign lands. Kublai Khan was a Buddhist who respected and encouraged the spread of other religions, namely Confucianism. Furthermore, Kublai Khan greatly opened Chinese borders to traders, travelers, and immigrants from across Eurasia.

Kublai Khan did not seek to destroy Han culture or ingratiate himself with it; he simply clarified the separation between the two parties during his reign. His conquests in Japan, Vietnam, Korea, and the Asian Steppe all actually promoted the spread of Han culture into foreign lands.

Sinicization of Religion

The three primary religions of the Medieval Han Chinese were Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Each religion was intertwined with the identity of the Han Chinese, and each was not exclusive to one another. Beyond the fundamental Han belief of ancestor worship, a Han Chinese person could practice a mix of Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism in their daily lives, or devote themselves entirely to one practice. As part of Han culture, these three religions spread within and without China through sinicization, often complementing or replacing the religions of impacted territories.

Sinicization of Southeast Asia

Sinicization of Southeast Asia began as early as the Han Dynasty of the Classical Era, and the process only continued into the Medieval Era, albeit with resistance. Imperial China repeatedly attempted to invade Vietnam during multiple dynasties, but the Han Chinese could never gain a strong foothold in the Southeastern country. Even the Mongols of the Yuan Dynasty were repelled, but some sinicization did occur as a result of Chinese interest in Vietnam.

Art depicting the Vietnamese victory over the Chinese in 938 CE at the Battle of Bạch Đằng. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

Agricultural methods, technological innovations, and Buddhism all spread into Vietnam, sinicizing the resistant Vietnamese. The Khmer Empire of modern-day Cambodia was more open to sinicization, accepting thousands of Song Dynasty immigrants during the Medieval Era.