Catherine de' Medici

Catherine de Medici Early Life

Catherine de' Medici was born on 13 April 1519 in Florence, Italy. Once she was of age, Catherine de' Medici's uncle, Pope Clement VII, arranged for her to marry in 1533. She was promised to Prince Henry, Duke d'Orleans, the son of King of France, Francis I.

Fig. 1 Catherine de' Medici.

Marriage and Children

At the time, royal marriages were not about love but strategy. Through marriage, two large, powerful families would become allies for political advancement and an increase in their power.

Fig. 2 Henry, Duke d'Orleans.

Henry, Duke d'Orleans had a mistress, Diane de Poitiers. Despite this, Henry and Catherine's marriage was deemed strategically successful as Catherine bore ten children. Although only four boys and three girls survived infancy, three of their children became French monarchs.

Catherine de Medici Timeline

Catherine de Medici lived through many critical political events, often playing an active role in her position of influence and power.

Catherine de Medici Contributions

In 1547, King Henry II ascended the French throne. Catherine de' Medici began to influence the French monarchy and governance as Queen consort. She held this position for 12 years. Upon Henry II's accidental death in 1559, Catherine became Queen regent for her two underage sons, King Francis II and King Charles IX. After the death of Charles IX and the ascension of King Henry III in 1574, Catherine's of-age third son, she became the Queen mother. Still, she continued to influence the French court after years of control. Let's look at Catherine de' Medici's significant contributions to politics, the monarchy, and religion during her time at the helm of France.

Religious Tensions

After Francis II became the young King of France in 1559, the Guise family, who had been part of the French court since King Francis I, gained more power within French governance. As the Guises were staunch Catholics supported by both the papacy and Spain, they readily responded to the Protestant Reformation by persecuting Huguenots throughout France.

With the Guise family's rising power and aspirations for the French throne, Catherine de' Medici needed a solution to quell their power. Upon Francis II's death in 1560, Catherine appointed Anthony of Bourbon as Lieutenant-General of France under the new young King Charles IX.

The Bourbons were a Huguenot family with aspirations for the throne. They were involved in the Amboise Conspiracy to overthrow Francis II in 1560. By appointing Anthony, Catherine was able to oust the Guise family from the French court and temporarily quieten Anthony's aspirations for the throne.

Catherine also proposed attempts to ease the religious tensions in 1560, which were eventually passed in 1562 as the Edict of Saint Germain, granting Huguenots a level of religious freedom in France.

Fig. 3 Massacre of Vassy.

In March 1562, in rebellion against the Edict of Saint Germain, the Guise family led the Massacre of Vassy, killing many Huguenots and instigating the French Wars of Religion. Anthony of Bourbon died that year during the Siege of Rouen, and his son, Henry of Bourbon, became the King of Navarre. Henry of Bourbon continued his family's aspirations for the French throne in the years to come.

The French Wars of Religion

Catherine de' Medici was influential in the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598). Catherine was the main mastermind and signatory for the periods of peace during this 30-year war. Let's look at the significant royal decrees that Catherine signed in this period in her attempts to bring peace to a religiously torn France.

• 1562 Edict of Saint Germain allowed Huguenots to preach freely in France, a landmark decree to end protestant persecution.

• 1563 Edict of Amboise ended the First War of Religion by granting the Huguenots legal rights and a limited right to preach in fixed locations.

• 1568 Peace of Longjumeau was signed by Charles IX and Catherine de' Medici. The edict ended the second French War of Religion with terms that mostly confirmed those of the earlier edict of Amboise.

• 1570 Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ended the Third War of Religion. It gave the Huguenots the same rights they had held at the beginning of the war, allocating them 'security towns'.

Catherine's work to foster peace was achieved, but only after her death. She died in 1589, and after her son, King Henry III, was assassinated later that year, the French throne was passed to Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre. He was crowned King Henry IV in 1594 and, sharing Catherine's desire for religious peace, issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which protected Huguenot rights and promoted civil unity.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Despite Catherine de' Medici's attempts to create peace in France, the French Wars of Religion continued to rage between the Huguenots and Catholics. 24 August 1572 saw the start of a targeted group of assassinations and violent Catholic mobs aimed against the Huguenots during the civil war. These attacks began in Paris and spread throughout France. King Charles IX, under the regency of Catherine de' Medici, ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny. Subsequently, a murderous pattern spread across Paris.

Ending in October 1572, the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre caused over 10,000 casualties within two months. The Huguenot political movement was damaged by losing its supporters and most prominent political leaders, marking a turning point in the French Wars of Religion.

Fig. 4 St.Bartholomew's Day Massacre.

Historian H.G. Koenigsburger states that the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre was:

Catherine de' Medici receives a vast amount of scrutiny and blame for the many deaths at the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Yet, it is impossible to know the actual origin of the assault. Catherine's position as regent during this time likely meant that she was aware of the upcoming conflicts and played a part in their productions. Still, it is often suggested that Catherine was among the few who did not agree to kill thousands of Huguenots. However, she condoned the assassination of Coligny and his lieutenants as a self-preserving political power move.

Catherine de' Medici's Line Discontinued

After the death of Charles IX in 1574, Catherine's favourite son Henry III became king, beginning another crisis of succession and religion. Catherine would not act as regent during Henry III's reign as he was old enough to rule on his own. However, Catherine still influenced his reign by overseeing the kingdom's affairs on behalf of Henry, acting as his political advisor.

Henry III's failure to produce an heir to the throne led the French Wars of Religion to develop into the War of the Three Henrys (1587). With Catherine's death in 1589 and her son Henry III's assassination only a few months later, Catherine's line was ended. Upon his death bed, Henry III recommended the ascension of his cousin, Henry IV of Navarre. In 1598, Henry IV ended the French Wars of Religion by passing the Edict of Nantes.

French Monarchy

Catherine is known for opposing the sexist constraints posed against women of power. After the death of her husband, Catherine defended her authority as Queen regent and Queen mother rigorously. Catherine Crawford comments on her political initiative, stating:

Fig. 5 Catherine de Medici and Marie Stuart.

Catherine de' Medici held power for most of her life through her roles as Queen consort, Queen regent, and Queen mother. She played an essential part while waiting for her children to come of age and assume power. Holding her position proved difficult, as extremists supported by Spain and the Papacy wanted to dominate the crown and diminish its independence in the interests of European Catholicism.

The Reformation weakened the Roman Catholic Church as Protestantism was gaining popularity throughout France. With Spain leading the fight against Protestantism through their strict and disciplined religious practices, they became particularly interested in obliterating Protestantism in neighbouring France.

Catherine de Medici Renaissance

Catherine embraced the Renaissance ideals of classicism, well-roundedness, scepticism, and individualism, becoming a true patron of the arts. She was known for appreciating culture, music, dance, and art and owned a vast art collection.

Fig. 7 Artemisia in battle

Catherine de Medici Significance

As we have explored, Catherine de' Medici played a significant role in many key events of the 16^th century. Through her status as Queen mother, her influence on the shift in female positions in French politics, and her contributions to the French Monarchy's independence, she has become known for enduring influence over the French Monarchy.

Her many attempts at ending the conflicts during the French Wars of Religion, and her involvement in renaissance art collecting and architectural development, earned Catherine de' Medici a tremendous amount of recognition during this time, as she is said to have shaped and saved this era.