The Reformation in Europe

The Reformation in Europe Timeline

Here is a brief timeline outlining the key events in the history of the Reformation in Europe.

Reformation in Europe History

Historians date the start of the Reformation to 1517 when Martin Luther published his 95 Theses. The ending of the Reformation falls anywhere between the 1555 Peace of Augsburg and the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia. While the ideas of the Reformation were nothing unique, they required Reformation leaders such as Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli to articulate, mobilise, and disseminate them.

Fig. 1 The Ninety-Five Theses.

Reasons for The Reformation in Europe

There were several reasons for the Reformation in Europe; these include:

• Corruption in the Roman Catholic Church, specifically the sale of indulgences – the act of clergy receiving money in return for absolving sins.

• Many people wanted to be able to read the Bible in their native language rather than solely Latin; the invention of the Gutenberg Printing Press in 1450 allowed Bible translations to circulate more freely.

• Popular figures such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli demanded reform.

• An increasing reliance on the Bible for moral guidance instead of the teachings of the Church.

• The actions of rulers such as Henry VIII to split from the Roman Catholic Church.

• The increasingly popular belief that salvation came only from God rather than earthly deeds.

Fig. 2 Martin Luther.

Leader of the European Reformation

The European Reformation did not have one single leader but a series of different people who gained influence throughout the 16^th century. Here is a table outlining key figures' contributions to the Reformation in Europe.

The Reformation in Europe: Countries

After the publication of Martin Luther's 95 Theses, the Reformation swept across Europe, bringing widespread religious, political, and societal change. Let's have a look at how some specific countries were affected by the Reformation in Europe.

The Reformation in Germany

In 1517, Augustinian monk Martin Luther published his 95 Theses, a work that criticised the corruption within the Catholic Church. Among other things, Luther's 95 Theses criticised the Church's selling of indulgences, the practice whereby the clergy receive money in return for absolving one's sins. Refusing to recant his beliefs at the Diet of Worms, Luther was excommunicated in 1521.

Between 1517 and 1524, the Reformation movement grew within German cities. In 1524, the religious movement transformed into a political one. German peasants, inspired by the teachings of Luther, revolted in what has come to be known as the German Peasants War.

The Reformation in Switzerland

The Reformation in Switzerland originated in 1519 with the thoughts of Huldrych Zwingli. Despite holding very similar views to Martin Luther, Zwingli argued that the bread and wine during Holy Communion symbolised the body and blood of Jesus, whereas Luther believed Jesus' body and blood were present in the bread and wine.

In 1541, John Calvin settled in Geneva. He put forth his religious views, which stressed the importance of God's power and notions of predestination. Calvin and Zwingli's successor, Heinrich Bullinger, united Calvinism and the Swiss Reformed church under the Helvetic Confessions in 1549. Calvin's views were disseminated in Scotland, Transylvania, France, and the Low Countries.

Fig. 3 John Calvin

Reformation in the Netherlands

Unlike the other Low Countries, the Reformation in the Netherlands was not instigated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces but rather by a series of popular reformist movements that took place throughout the 16^th century. The Anabaptist movement proved popular in the early Reformation period. However, the Calvinist-influenced Dutch Reformed Church became the dominant Protestant religion by the mid-16^th century. Throughout the 17^th century, the conflict between the Gomarists and Arminians saw the Gomarist branch of Calvinism becoming the state religion.

The Reformation in England

In 1531, Pope Clement VII refused to void Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Consequently, Henry stated that he should be the authority in charge of the Church of England. He proceeded to split England from the Catholic Church, disband the monasteries, and seize their wealth. This began the English Reformation.

Fig. 4 Catherine of Aragon.

The Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church was slow to respond to the Reformation's attitudes and figures. Eventually, between 1545 and 1563, the Council of Trent articulated a response to the Reformation. The reaction of the Catholic Church, known as the Counter-Reformation, saw the Catholic Church reform its practices and eliminate corrupt conventions.

Fig. 5 Council of Trent.

The Counter-Reformation saw many progressive reforms, such as the end of selling indulgences, the ascendency of the Jesuits, and the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which allowed religious freedoms for Lutherans and Calvinists in Europe. Despite some positive developments, there were several adverse effects of the Counter-Reformation. The Inquisition saw the imprisonment, torture, and execution of thousands believed to be heretics, and the Index of Forbidden Books saw the suppression of literature that didn't tow the Roman Catholic line.

Pros and Cons of the European Reformation

The Protestant Reformation brought about significant and lasting change. Here is a brief table outlining the pros and cons of the Reformation in Europe:

The Reformation in Europe: Historiography

Traditionally, historians focussed their scholarship on the 'Reformation from above', asserting that it was nobles and princes – as well as the efforts of individuals such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, – that brought about the Reformation in Europe.

The traditionalist view – which remained prominent until the 1960s – has been contended by revisionists in recent decades. Revisionists believe that the Reformation was a joint effort between both nobles and peasants. This view is summed up by revisionist Ethan Shagan: