History of the Papacy

Outline History of the Papacy

There have been over 260 popes since the establishment of the papacy in the first century. The pontificate of most popes lasts between a year and a decade, but the length of each pope's rule can range from just 13 days (Pope Urban VII) to over 31 years (Pope Pius IX).

List of Popes

It would take a while to go over every single pope, but below is a timeline of important popes and events.

Papal Supremacy

The rise of papal power can be traced all the way back to Jesus Christ. In the final chapter of the Gospel of John, Jesus made an appearance and, according to Catholic doctrine, established Peter's supreme leadership over the Christian Church. As a result, the Catholic Church has claimed that, in line with the doctrine of Apostolic succession, the Pope should have supreme jurisdiction over the whole Christian world.

Fig. 1 - Illustration of Pope Gregory VII

It is important to note that for the first three centuries of the Christian Church there was no single pope, and many priests were named popes in places other than Rome (e.g. Alexandria and Antioch). It was only after 150 AD that Rome would have a single Pope. In 1073, Pope Gregory VII also restricted the use of the term pope to the Bishop of Rome.

The doctrine of papal supremacy was first created in the 6^th century after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, establishing the pope as a symbol of continuity and authority in the West.

Fig. 2 - The Western Roman Empire in 395 AD

The Early Christian era

During the 1^st century (30-130) the recognition of Rome as a centre for Christianity laid the foundation for the establishment of papal power. In his book, Against Heresies (189), the Greek Bishop Iranaeus argued:

Further, in 195 CE Pope Victor I tried to excommunicate the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14^th of Nisan (Hebrew for ‘first fruits’), the day of the Jewish Passover - this practice was mostly concentrated in Asia Minor. Other bishops, including Iranaeus, criticised the idea of excommunication and Victor backed down. However, this demonstrated the emboldened papacy, and the practice of observing Easter on a Sunday has prevailed to the present day.

Arianism

When Constantine I became the Western Roman Emperor in 312, he attributed this victory to the Christian God and went on to issue the Edict of Milan with Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius. The Edict mandated the toleration of the Christian faith within the Roman Empire, ending decades of prosecution against Christians.

The First Council of Nicaea was convened in 325 AD by Constantine I to solve a disagreement between St. Alexander of Alexandria and Arius, who had differing ideas about the Being of Christ. This Council, which met in Nicea (in present-day Turkey) was the first official meeting of Christian bishops.

What was the disagreement about?

This disagreement to a divide in the church and the rise of the followers of Arius and Arianism. To counteract Arianism, the Kingdom of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity, based on the Nicene Creed, in 380 CE. They named Nicene Christianity ‘Catholic Christianity’.

The First Phase of Papal Supremacy

During the first phase of papal supremacy, the Catholic Church continued to solidify the pope's right to rule not only over the church but over emperors.

Byzantine Papacy

The Western Roman Empire experienced military, financial, and political collapse between 276 and 476. This was mainly because of continuous invasion from Germanic tribes, like the Goths, which continued to erode the territories and strength of the Western Empire. For example, in 410 Visigoth King Alaric successfully sacked (pillaged) Rome. This meant that the Pope was increasingly dependent on the Eastern Roman Emperor.

Justinian I (Byzantine Emperor) conquered the Italian peninsula in the Gothic war of 535-554 and appointed the next three popes. This practice would be continued by later Eastern Emperors until it was delegated to the Exarchate of Ravenna in 584. This was a group of Italian lords who dominated church appointments. During this period the Pope needed explicit approval from the Byzantine monarch to have his election validated.

Pope Gregory I

Pope Gregory I (590-604) was instrumental in increasing the power of the pope. He was the first major figure to argue that because Roman papal succession can be traced back to the Apostle Peter, the Bishop of Rome should be considered the prime representative of God on earth and thus the supreme leader of Christendom.

Fig. 3 - Pope Gregory I

Gregory faced a particular challenge from the Lombards, a Germanic tribe that moved to Italy in the 6^th century. Though Gregory did believe he was part of a Christian federation headed by the Byzantine Emperor, he turned his attention toward the Lombards in an attempt to secure more freedom for the West. He encouraged the initially pagan Lombards to convert to Catholic Christianity rather than Arian Christianity.

Pope Gregory I continued the groundwork laid by his predecessor, Pope Leo I (reigned 440-461), who argued that because the Papacy inherits the full powers of St Peter (the founder of the Roman Catholic Church) there could be no appeal of a decision made by the Pope.

Frankish Papacy

During the 8^th century, the Western Church came under financial pressure from the Byzantine Emperor Leo III, who attempted to restore the decreasing Byzantine fortunes by imposing increased taxes on his Italian subjects, whilst providing limited support against the Lombards. This drove the Western Church to find a new protector.

Pope Stephen II asked Pippin the Younger of the Frankish Kingdom for protection against the Lombards and marked the historical transition from the Byzantine Papacy to the Frankish Papacy, in which the Pope became increasingly dependent on the Frankish King.

In 754, Stephen II formally crowned Pippin as the first Carolingian King of the Franks, after which Pippin marched with his army to central Italy in order to restore papal authority against the Lombards. The King also issued the Donation of Pippin in 756, which established the Papal States (a series of territories in the Italian peninsula under the direct control of the Pope).

By supporting Pippin and the Carolingian Dynasty, the Pope advanced papal supremacy. In 769, a council regulating elections decided that the Pope’s election would be moved from the jurisdiction of the Byzantine to that of the Frankish monarch.

The Second Phase of Papal Supremacy

The second phase of the rise of papal supremacy took place between the 11^th and 13^th centuries.

The Investiture Controversy

Pope Gregory VII instigated a pointed attack (after 1075) on a traditional practice that had been established during the Byzantine and Frankish Papacy - the Emperor's control of church appointments. This attack led to civil and ecclesiastical (church) strife in Italy and Germany where the church and state fought over whether the pope or monarch should appoint bishops, abbots and other church officials.

The conflict came to a close in 1122 when Roman Emperor Henry V and Pope Calixtus II signed the Concordat of Worms which separated royal and spiritual powers, giving the Emperor some limited powers in selecting bishops. The outcome was the legitimisation of the Pope’s claim to be the chief representative of God on earth.

The Crusades

Papal supremacy reached its height during the Crusades. Pope Urban II called for a crusade, or holy war, to recapture the Holy Land of Jerusalem and overturn Muslim domination in the Middle East in 1095. Urban’s call would lead to an extended period of religious conflict seen through the four crusades from 1095 to 1291.

Although ultimately unsuccessful, the Crusades greatly increased papal prestige during the 12^th and 13^th centuries as the Pope was seen as the protector of Christianity around the world.