White Terror

White Terror French Revolution

The White Terror was a violent reaction to the Reign of Terror, which had attempted to purge France of anti-revolutionaries.

White Terror Meaning

The White Terror, on the other hand, targeted those with radical revolutionary ideas who had called for these mass executions. There were two phases of the White Terror, the first starting in late 1794 after the execution of Maximilien Robespierre - the leader who exercised a virtual dictatorship during the Terror. The second wave occurred in 1815 and was directed towards suspected sympathisers of the French Revolution following the restoration of King Louis XVIII to power.

Great White Terror Key groups

Thermidorian Reaction

Maximilien Robespierre's was one of the most powerful Revolutionaries in 1794. He was the architect of the Terror - when the French Revolutionaries executed anyone even remotely suspected to be a traitor to the Revolution. However, since the start of the reign of terror, people had become more and more concerned with his actions and began to resent the numerous executions and widespread violence. This was made worse by the fact that Robespierre had even executed those who had been supporters and friends of his, like Georges Danton.

Figure 1. Robespierre's arrest by Jean Joseph Francois Tassaert.

Robespierre's increasingly erratic behaviour meant that people became scared - they did not know who would be next on the guillotine. In this way, they turned on Robespierre, culminating in the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794. The reaction was a revolt against the terror and a show of support for the rights of the National Convention. Robespierre and his allies were arrested and executed.

First White Terror

After the Thermidorian Reaction of 1794 overthrew Robespierre, the people who had been targeted by his state-sanctioned terrorism wished to end the Terror's violence. However, even after Robespierre's death, they encountered a country that was deeply divided, paranoid, and bitter against the violence of the Terror. The Thermidorians attacked former supporters of the Red Terror, including:

• Government officials

• Priests who had taken the oath under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy

• Those who had bought land from the state

• The sans-culottes

• Remaining Montagnards who had supported the Terror

In Paris, the main perpetrators of the White Terror were the Muscadins. According to historian Francois Gendron, the Muscadins numbered around 2000-3000, and they were mainly the sons of affluent merchants and administrators.¹ These youths formed gangs and mainly harassed and beat up anyone related to the Jacobin club or who held Jacobin views.

The Companions of Jehu

The Companions of Jehu were gangs of youth similar to the Muscadins, but which organised themselves in Lyon. Similar gangs appeared around many regional areas of France, another notable one being the Companions of the Sun in Provence.

Members of the Companions of Jehu massacred Jacobin prisoners in Lyon in May 1795. Over the following days, the violence became more widespread; this phase of the White Terror continued until the army re-established control by force.

Consequences of the First White Terror

The First White Terror was more a reaction to the reign of terror under Robespierre than it was a show of support for the restoration of the monarchy. Nevertheless, the reactionary violence had several consequences - here are the most important.

The Vendémiaire Uprising

After both the reign of terror and the White Terror, a new constitution, known as the 'Constitution of Year III' was being drawn up that would hopefully restore the balance in France. However, the National Convention decided to include a 'Two-Thirds Decree', which meant that two-thirds of the new parliament had to be filled by the Thermidorians.

Although it was intended to ensure continuity in the government, the decree outraged many, who saw it as a curbing of democracy. Equally, the government's failure to stop food shortages only exacerbated the tension that eventually turned into rebellion.

On 5 October 1795, a crowd numbering around 25,000 turned up to march on the Convention and take control. The crowd was made up of artisans, apprentices and manual workers - people who supported the Revolution but were frustrated at the moderate position of the Thermidorians and their persecution of the more radical Revolutionaries.

Figure 2. Vendemiaire Uprising by Charles Monnet.

However, they were met with strong resistance - a force of 7,800 troops had little trouble in quashing the uprising with cannon fire. Around 300 people were killed or wounded in the fighting, but the authority of the Convention was restored. This uprising was called the Vendemiairie Uprising.

Second White Terror

The Second White Terror occurred in 1815 as a response to Napoleon I's brief return to power during the Hundred Days, and mainly targeted Republicans and Bonapartists.

After King Louis XVII's restoration, he ruthlessly arrested and executed any supporters of Napoleon. This reign of terror was called the Second White Terror. Around 70,000 government officials were dismissed, many of Napoleon's closest allies were executed, and some 6000 of his supporters were brought to trial. In addition, mob violence and lynching killed a further 300, mainly in the south of France.

Consequences of the Second White Terror

The severe reprisals of the newly restored monarchy struck fear into the people's hearts. Violence in regional areas worsened around the time of the departmental elections in August; in Nîmes, fifteen were killed the night before the election. As a result, many people became scared to vote against the Royalist faction, meaning that the new Legislative houses filled up with those sympathetic to the Royalist cause.

An increased number of deputies who were sympathetic to the Royalist cause led to fears that the progress of the Revolution would be completely overturned. Indeed, Louis XVIII and his subsequent heirs would try to reverse the changes made by the Revolution, but would ultimately be unsuccessful.

White Terror - Key takeaways

• The First White Terror occurred in 1795 as a response to the Reign of Terror.
• It began after the Thermidorian Reaction overthrew Robespierre, and involved brutal attacks directed towards former supporters of the Red Terror.
• The Great White Terror had no coherent political agenda, nor was it uniform across France. Its main characteristic was the need for revenge, and disgust with the turn that the French Revolution had taken.
• Key groups which took part in the First White Terror included the Muscadins and the Companions of Jehu.
• The Second White Terror was a reaction to Napoleon's return to power during the Hundred Days. After he was removed, Republicans and Bonapartists were purged from all parts of political and social life.

1. François Gendron, La jeunesse dorée: épisodes de la Révolution française (Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1979).

2. Marie-Joseph Chénier and Antoine-Vincent Arnault, 'Oevres de M Chénier', Guillaume (1826) p.256.

3. Cited in Ed. Peter McPhee, A Companion to the French Revolution (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015), p. 360.