Mary I of England

Mary I of England’s Biography: Date of Birth and Siblings

Mary Tudor was born on 18 February 1516 to King Henry VIII's first wife, Catherine of Aragon, a Spanish princess. She reigned as monarch after her half-brother Edward VI and before her half-sister Elizabeth I.

She was the eldest of Henry VIII's surviving legitimate children. Elizabeth was born in 1533 to Henry's second wife Anne Boleyn and Edward to his third wife Jane Seymour in 1537. Although Edward was the youngest, he succeeded Henry VIII as he was male and legitimate: he ruled from the age of just nine until he died at age 15.

Mary I did not immediately succeed her brother. He had named his cousin Lady Jane Grey as successor but she only spent nine days on the throne. Why? We'll look at this in more detail shortly.

Background to Mary I's Reign

Mary I faced a tough situation when she became queen: the mid-Tudor crisis. What was this and how did she handle it?

The Mid-Tudor Crisis

The mid-Tudor crisis was a period from 1547 to 1558 during the reigns of Edward VI and Mary I (and Lady Jane Grey). Historians disagree about the severity of the crisis, but some say the English government was dangerously close to collapsing during this time.

The crisis was due to the rule of their father, Henry VIII. His financial mismanagement, foreign policy, and religious issues left a difficult situation for his children to deal with. The Tudor period, in general, saw a large number of rebellions, which continued to present a threat, although the Wyatt Rebellion Mary I faced was much less of a threat than the Pilgrimage of Grace under Henry VIII.

Mary's decisive rule alleviated the impact of food shortages on the poor and rebuilt some aspects of the financial system. Despite this, Mary struggled greatly with foreign policy, and her failures in this arena contributed to the reasons why her reign is seen as part of the mid-Tudor crisis.

The big issue of the time, however, was religion and the English Reformation.

The English Reformation

Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon on 15 June 1509 but became dissatisfied with her inability to give him a son. The King began an affair with Anne Boleyn and wanted to divorce Catherine but divorce was strictly forbidden in Catholicism, and at the time England was a Catholic nation.

Henry VIII knew this and tried to have a papal annulment granted instead, arguing that his marriage to Catherine was cursed by God since she had previously been married to his older brother Arthur. Pope Clement VII refused to allow Henry to remarry.

Henry and Catherine's marriage was annulled in 1533 by Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury, a few months after Henry had married Anne Boleyn in secret. The end of Henry's marriage to Catherine made Mary I an illegitimate child and ineligible to succeed to the throne.

The King broke with Rome and the Catholic tradition and made himself head of the Church of England in 1534. This began the English Reformation and saw the transformation of England from a Catholic to a Protestant country. The conversion went on for decades but England was fully cemented as a Protestant state during the rule of Edward VI.

Although England became protestant, Mary refused to give up her Catholic beliefs which were said to have greatly strained her relationship with her father Henry VIII.

Mary I of England's Accession to the Throne

As we have already mentioned, Mary did not succeed Henry VIII after his death as Edward VI was the legitimate male heir. Her sister Elizabeth was also illegitimate by this time as Henry had her mother Anne Boleyn executed by beheading, and married Jane Seymour - Edward's mother.

Just before Edwards VI's passing, Edward alongside the Duke of Northumberland, John Dudley, decided that Lady Jane Grey should become queen. Many feared that if Mary I acceded to the throne her rule would bring more religious turmoil to England. This was because Mary I was well known for her continued and fervent support of Catholicism.

Consequently, the Duke of Northumberland proposed that Lady Jane Grey be crowned queen in order to maintain the religious reforms introduced during Edward VI's reign. In June 1553, Edward VI accepted the Duke of Northumberland's proposed ruler and signed a document that excluded Mary and Elizabeth from any succession. This document cemented that both Mary I and Elizabeth I were illegitimate.

Edward died on 6 July 1553, and Lady Jane Grey became Queen on 10 July.

How did Mary I become Queen?

Not taking kindly to being excluded from the throne, Mary I of England wrote a letter to the privy council asserting her birthright.

In the letter, Mary I of England also noted that she would pardon the council's involvement in the plan to remove her succession rights if they crowned her as queen immediately. Mary I's letter and proposal were rejected by the Privy council. This was because the council was largely influenced by the Duke of Northumberland.

The Privy council backed Lady Jane's claim to be queen and also stressed that the law had made Mary I illegitimate so she had no right to the throne. Moreover, the council's reply warned Mary I to be very wary of trying to stir up support for her cause amongst the people because her loyalties were expected to be with Lady Jane Grey.

However, the letter was also copied and sent to many large towns in an effort to gain support. The circulation of Mary I's letter gained her a lot of support as many people believed that she was the rightful queen. This support allowed Mary I to put together an army to fight for her rightful place as queen.

News of this support reached the Duke of Northumberland, who then attempted to assemble his troops and squash Mary’s attempt. Just before the proposed battle, however, the council decided to accept Mary as Queen.

Mary I of England was crowned in July 1553 and coronated in October 1553. Mary's legitimacy was confirmed by law in 1553 and Elizabeth I's right to the throne was later returned and confirmed by law in 1554 on the condition that if Mary I died childless Elizabeth I would succeed her.

Mary I of England's Religious Reformation

Having grown up a Catholic, but seeing her father reform the church from Catholicism to Protestantism, mainly to annul his marriage to her mother, religion was understandably a big issue for Mary I.

When Mary I of England first came to power, she made it clear that she would practice Catholicism but stated that she had no intentions of forcing a mandatory conversion back to Catholicism. This did not remain the case.

• Soon after her coronation Mary arrested several Protestant churchmen and imprisoned them.

• Mary even went on to get her parents’ marriage ruled as legitimate in parliament.

• Mary was initially cautious when making religious changes as she did not want to incite a rebellion against her.

The First Statute of Repeal

The First Statute of Repeal was passed during Mary I's first parliament in 1553 and repealed all religious legislation introduced in the reign of Edward VI. This meant that:

• The Church of England was restored to the status it had under the 1539 Act of the Six Articles, which upheld the following elements:

  • The Catholic idea that the bread and wine at communion really did turn into the body and blood of Christ.

  • The view that people did not need to receive both bread and wine.

  • The idea that priests must remain celibate.

  • Vows of chastity were binding.

  • Private masses were permitted.

  • The practice of confession.

• The 1552 Second Act of Uniformity was repealed: this law had made it an offence for people to skip church services, and all church of England services were based on the Protestant 'Book of Common Prayer'.

These earlier changes were quite well received, as many people had retained Catholic practices or beliefs. This support wrongly emboldened Mary to take further action.

Problems began for Mary I of England when she went back on what she had initially stated and engaged in discussions with the Pope about returning to the papacy. However, the Pope, Julius III, urged Mary I to proceed with a level of caution in such matters to avoid causing a rebellion. Even Mary I's most trusted advisor, Stephen Gardner, was cautious about restoring the authority of the Pope in England. While Gardner was a devout Catholic, he advised caution and restraint when it came to dealing with Protestants.

The Restoration of Papal Supremacy

Mary I of England's second parliament passed the Second Statute of Repeal in 1555. This returned the Pope to his position as head of the Church, removing the monarch from this position.

Mary I of England was decidedly cautious and did not reclaim the lands taken from the monasteries when they were dissolved during her father Henry VIII's reign. This was because noblemen had benefited a great deal from owning these formerly religious lands and had become extremely wealthy through their ownership. Mary I was advised to leave this issue alone to avoid upsetting the noblemen of the time and creating a rebellion.

Additionally, under this act, heresy laws made it illegal and punishable to speak against Catholicism.

Religious Persecution

Following the Second Statute of Repeal in 1555, Mary I launched a repressive campaign against Protestants. The campaign led to numerous religious executions and awarded Mary I of England the nickname ‘Bloody Mary’.

Mary was known to be extremely cruel when punishing those who committed religious crimes. During this time, she burned people at the stake and is reported to have executed around 250 protestants by this method.

Mary I's rulership ended with the nation becoming majority Catholic, yet her cruelty led to many people disliking her.

The success and limitations of Mary's restoration

Mary I of England's Marriage

Mary I of England faced immense pressure to conceive an heir; by the time she was crowned queen she was already 37 and unmarried.

Tudor historians report that Mary was already suffering from irregular menstruation when she acceded to the throne, meaning her chances to conceive were significantly lowered.

Mary I had a few viable options for a match:

1. Cardinal Pole: Pole had a strong claim to the English throne himself, as he was the cousin of Henry VIII but had yet to be ordained.

2. Edward Courtenay: Courtenay was an English nobleman, a descendant of Edward IV, who had been imprisoned under Henry VIII's reign.

3. Prince Philip of Spain: this match was strongly encouraged by his father Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, who was Mary's cousin.

Fig. 2: Prince Philip of Spain and Mary I of England

Mary decided to seek marriage to Prince Phillip. However, Parliament tried to convince her that this was a risky decision. Parliament thought that Mary should marry an Englishman, for fear that England may be overcome by the Spanish monarch. Mary refused to listen to parliament and regarded her marriage choices as exclusively her business.

As for Prince Phillip, he was extremely reluctant to marry Mary I of England as she was older and he had already managed to secure a male heir from a previous marriage. Though Phillip was hesitant, he followed his father’s command and agreed to the marriage.

Wyatt Uprising

The news of Mary's potential marriage spread quickly, and the public was enraged. Historians have varying opinions about why this happened:

• People wanted Lady Jane Grey to become queen or even Mary's sister, Elizabeth I.

• A response to the changing religious landscape in the country.

• Economic issues within the kingdom.

• The kingdom simply wanted her to marry Edward Courtney instead.

What is clear is that a number of nobles and gentlemen began to conspire against the Spanish match late in 1553, and several risings were planned and coordinated in the summer of 1554. Under the plan, there would be risings in the west, on the Welsh borders, in Leicestershire (led by the Duke of Suffolk), and in Kent (led by Thomas Wyatt). Originally, the rebels planned to assassinate Mary, but this was later dropped from their agenda.

The plan for the western uprising came to an abrupt end when the Duke of Suffolk was unable to gather enough troops in the west. Despite these circumstances, on 25 January 1554, Thomas Wyatt organized around 30,000 soldiers in Maidstone Kent.

In an instant, the Queen's privy council assembled troops. 800 of Wyatt's troops deserted, and on 6 February, Wyatt surrendered. Wyatt was tortured and during his confession implicated Mary’s sister, Elizabeth I. After this, Wyatt was executed.

Mary I of England and Prince Phillip married on 25 July 1554.

Mary I of England's Foreign Policy

One of the key reasons Mary I of England's period of rulership was considered to be in ‘crisis’ was because she struggled to implement effective foreign policy and made a series of mistakes.

Economic changes during Mary I of England's reign

During Mary’s rulership, England and Ireland experienced continual wet seasons. This meant that the harvest was bad for several years running, which negatively impacted the economy.

Mary I did, however, have some success regarding the British economy. For instance, under her rulership, financial affairs were under the control of the Lord Treasurer, William Paulet, first Marquess of Winchester. In this capacity, Winchester was incredibly knowledgeable and competent.

In this way, Mary was a vital Tudor monarch in helping England's economy by increasing the long-term financial security of the Tudor crown. It is because of these reasons that many Tudor historians argue the mid-Tudor crisis was exaggerated, particularly under the leadership of Mary I.

Mary I of England's Cause of Death and Legacy

Mary I died on 17 November 1558. Her cause of death is unknown but it is thought that she died from ovarian/uterine cancer, having suffered from pain throughout her life and a series of false pregnancies. As she had not produced an heir, her sister Elizabeth took over as queen.

So, what is Mary I's legacy? Let's look at the good and the bad below.