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John Adams: Biography
John Adams was born to Susanna and John Adams Sr. on October 30, 1735, in Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was an avid reader and attended college at Harvard, graduating in 1755. In 1758, Adams passed the bar exam and became a lawyer. He had a small practice that operated out of his barn house. Adams grew his practice and maintained his farm before marrying Abigail Smith in 1764. Only ten years into his legal career, Adams found himself aligned with the movement for American Independence.
Fig 1: A portrait of John Adams that was painted between 1800 and 1815.
John Adams: American Revolution
In 1765, John Adams was embroiled in the patriot movement for Independence from Britain. The British parliament passed the Stamp Act, which Adams virulently opposed that year. He wrote four articles voicing his opposition to the Stamp Act in the “Boston Gazette.” Adams argued that the Stamp Act violated the colonist's rights because they didn't have adequate representation in parliament. Without representation, parliament couldn't tax the colonists.
Boston Massacre
When a mob attacked, a British soldier guarded the King's money at a custom house. The soldier called for reinforcements, but the mob had grown by the time they arrived. The soldiers were attacked with cubs, ice, and snowballs before someone yelled fire. The soldiers fired their guns into the crowd, killing five and wounding six.
The soldiers believed they wouldn't receive a fair trial and were destined to be executed. Adams agreed to represent them; he even got jurists from outside of Boston to ensure a fair trial. Four of the six soldiers were found non-guilty. The other two were given a mark on their thumbs to show that this was a first-time offense and then allowed to leave.
Did You Know . . .
Adams' choice to defend the British soldiers was a very unpopular one. Many Americans believed that the men should've just been executed. Adams was a patriot and disagreed with the British taxation of the colonies, but he couldn't allow the men to have an unfair trial. Adams made the difficult choice to defend the British soldiers and uphold the values of the judicial system.
The Continental Congresses
In 1774 and 1775, Adams was one of the five delegates elected to represent the Massachusetts colony at the first and second Continental Congresses. He assisted his long-time friend, Thomas Jefferson, with drafting the Declaration of Independence. Adams also nominated George Washington as the Commander-In-Chief of the Continental Army.
Fig 2: This image shows George Washington as he was elected Commander in Chief.
John Adams: Ambassador
John Adams was a diplomat during the Revolutionary War. He assisted with American policies, but more importantly, he negotiated with foreign countries for their recognition of America as an independent nation. Adams also contributed to the Model Treaty of 1776, which laid the groundwork for America's foreign policy. America would conduct free trade with all countries but had no permanent allies.
In 1778, Adams arrived in France to negotiate a peace treaty, but Benjamin Franklin had already finished negotiations. Franklin's records were a mess, so Adams kept sorting them in France for one year. Adams returned to America and resumed his role as a politician.
In 1782, Adams was sent to the Netherlands to secure recognition of America. With the Treaty of Amity and Commerce, the Netherlands recognized America as independent and loaned the new country five million Dutch guilders.
The following year, John Adams was one of the negotiators for peace with Great Britain. The parties met in France, and the Treaty of Paris was named. Afterward, he became the United States Minister in Britain, where he remained with his family for several years.
Dutch Guilder
Netherlands' currency from the 15th century until the early 2000s
John Adams: Political Party
George Washington won the presidency, and Adams came in second, which made him the Vice President. As the first Vice President, Adams tried to use the power of the office to the best of his ability. Still, in the fledgling U.S. government, he found the position had little to no influence on any legal or political issues.
My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.”
- John Adams in a Letter to Abigail Adams in 1793.1
When Washington retired, Adams ran for the presidency. Adams was a Federalist, and his opposing party, the Democratic-Republicans, was established by Jefferson. Their friendship had fallen apart, and the two men were on different political teams. Look at the chart below to see the differences between the two parties. Adams won the presidency, and Jefferson was his Vice President.
| Democratic-Republicans | Federalists |
| Small, Decentralized Government | Large, Strong Government |
| State Finances Should Be Separate From Federal | Union Should Assume State's Debt, National Bank |
| Supported France | Supported Britain |
John Adams: Presidency
Adams won the presidency, and Jefferson was his Vice President. Adams didn't accomplish the Federalist goals because of Democratic-Republican opposition. The French Revolution began during Washington's presidency but was the most severe threat during Adam's term. In 1798, Adams sent three ships to France to strike a peace agreement. French privateers attacked American merchants, and Adams didn't want to jeopardize trade with France. Each ship was turned away because the French wanted a bribe.
Adams released a statement referring to the French diplomats as X, Y, and Z. Americans felt disrespected and wanted to go to war. Still, Adams didn't think America was ready for war. He passed the Aliens and Sedition Acts because he felt new Americans would support the Democratic-Republican party. He also built up the American navy. By 1800, the new navy was clearing the way for merchants.
This was called the "XYZ Affair." While America never declared war on France, it did engage in the form of warfare. This event is referred to as a "quasi-war."
Fig. 3 - A depiction of the USS Constellation and the French frigate L'Insurgente during the Quasi-War in 1799. Source: Wikimedia Commons (public domain).
The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798:
With the United States in a quasi-war with France, Adams and the Federalist party felt that the open criticism of the Adams Administration regarding the war with France was “disloyal” to the United States as it struggled against a solid foreign power. In addition, there was a feeling that “aliens,” or people living in the United States who were not U.S. citizens, would align themselves with the French during the conflict.
The result was the passage of four laws, known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws changed the residency time to become a citizen from 5 to 14 years and allowed the deportation of non-citizens. The Sedition Act criminalized “print, utter, or publish, any false, scandalous, or malicious writing” about the U.S. government.
The Sedition Act targeted the Democratic-Republicans, the opposition party to Adams Federalists. This targeted law only galvanized the already opposed political ideologies of the two parties, and the laws backfired on the Federalists, who lost the presidential election of 1800. 2
Adams’ actions to negotiate for peace with France divided his party between his supporters and Alexander Hamilton's. This division influenced the political landscape leading up to the Election of 1800. With the Federalist party split, the Republicans nominated Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson won the election.
John Adams: Slavery
While nearing the end of his term as president, Adams expressed his views on slavery in a letter to abolitionists. In this letter, Adams states that though he opposed slavery, he felt that the actions of radical abolitionists would do just as much harm to the cause of emancipation as enslavers did. Adams felt that slavery must be curtailed slowly, with “much caution and circumspection.”
[I] wish you Success in your benevolent Endeavors to relieve the distress of our fellow Creatures, and Shall always be ready to cooperate with you, as far as my means and Opportunities can reasonably be expected to extend.
- John Adams to George Churchman and Jacob Lindley, 18013
John Adams: Facts
During his presidency, Adams did negotiate an end to the conflict with France and passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. Though controversial, these acts are influential in solidifying the early political parties' views over the central government's control. The laws provided the first tests of freedom of speech and press that would come before the Supreme Court.
Though not known for a successful presidency following George Washington, his role during the revolution cemented his legacy as one of the most influential founding fathers of the United States. He remained friends with Thomas Jefferson, his political opponent, until his and Jefferson’s death on July 4th, 1826, just hours apart.
John Adams - Key takeaways
John Adams ensured that the British soldiers responsible for the Boston Massacre received a fair trial.
Adams represented Massachusetts at the first and second continental congresses.
During the Revolutionary War, Adams was an ambassador to France and Holland. He ensured that the countries recognized America as an independent country. After the war, Adams remained in France to negotiate the treaty with Britain.
Adams was a Federalist but could not accomplish many of his party's goals during his presidency.
Adams was against slavery but believed that it had to end gradually.
References
- “John Adams to Abigail Adams, 19 December 1793,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-09-02-0278. [Source: The Adams Papers, Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 9, January 1790 – December 1793, ed. C. James Taylor, Margaret A. Hogan, Karen N. Barzilay, Gregg L. Lint, Hobson Woodward, Mary T. Claffey, Robert F. Karachuk, and Sara B. Sikes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009, pp. 476–477.]
- Alien and Sedition Acts (1798). (2022, February 8). National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/alien-and-sedition-acts
- John Adams to George Churchman and Jacob Lindley, January 24, 1801. Gilder Lehrman Collection.
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Frequently Asked Questions about John Adams
Who was John Adams?
John Adams was the second President of the United States of America. He represented the Federalist party.
Did John Adams own slaves?
John Adams didn't own enslaved people. He hired free Black people and white people to work on his property.
How did John Adams die?
John Adams died on July 4, 1826, of heart failure. His last words were, "Thomas Jefferson still survives". Unbeknownst to Adams, Jefferson died five hours prior.
When was John Adams president?
President John Adams's term lasted from 1796 to 1801.
Where was John Adams born?
John Adams was born to John Adams, Sr. And Susanna Adams on October 30, 1735.
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