Native Americans and the New Deal

Challenges of the New Deal for Native Americans

Many Indigenous people didn't want the government to interfere with the tribes at all. They didn't trust the government and for good reason. Let's look at the role of Indigenous people in American history. Historically, the government worked relentlessly to force Indigenous people to abandon their culture and assimilate.

Ever since the first encounters between Native Americans and white people, the Indigenous people were expected to give up their land and resources so that white people could have them. This was how the Americas were colonized. They were used to signing treaties that gave white people rights to Indigenous land, and the government didn't follow through on its end. It is understandable why Indigenous peoples didn't trust America and wanted no part in it.

Let's look at the chart below for a quick list of events, then we can explore them!

Dawes Act

The Dawes Act was passed in 1887 and further took away the indigenous way of life. The goal of legislation passed that was aimed at Native Americans was assimilation. This act took away the right of Native American nations to collectively own land in exchange for Native American men having to own it. The head of each family could claim a specific amount of land but had to register for it. If they were approved, then the land was given to them.

The excess land was sold, and a small amount of the money was given to the tribes. The land that was given to Native Americans was poor and ill-equipped for farming. Thus, reservations shrunk in size, and indigenous people were further forced to assimilate.

Fig. 1 - The New Deal reinforced traditional gender roles, often encouraging men to work in physical labor jobs while women were encouraged towards 'suitable work', like sewing, nursing, or teaching.

Indian Citizenship Act

The Indian Citizenship Act was passed in 1924 and gave Native Americans US citizenship. In theory, the act gave Native Americans the right to vote because, according to the Fifteenth Amendment, all American citizens have the right to vote. Many Native Americans were denied the right to vote because their states passed legislation prohibiting them from doing so. Indigenous people weren't consulted about this act, and many didn't want US citizenship.

New Deal Policy Towards American Indians

John Collier was the head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the 1930s. Collier wanted to return some of the Native American's land to them, give them back their own governmental autonomy, and increase federal funding. While many of his plans didn't pass through Congress, Collier was able to give Native Americans access to the New Deal, reverse the Dawes Act, and overturn laws that prohibited Native Americans from practicing their religions. Let's take a closer look at the policies passed toward Native Americans.

Indian Reorganization Act

The Indian Reorganization Act, or the Wheeler Howard Act, was passed in 1934. In its original form, the act would have limited the American government's involvement in tribal life. A lot of the act was stripped away before congress would agree to pass it. The remaining goal was to preserve Native American tradition and culture while still encouraging assimilation.

The focus of this act was to encourage economic sufficiency and higher education among federally recognized tribes. It overturned the Dawes Act by reinstating the rights of communal land in tribes. If Native Americans wanted to allow private use of specific land by Native Americans, that would be accepted, but they couldn't sell the land.

None of the land taken by the Dawes Act and redistributed was given back to the tribes. Another issue was that Native Americans weren't consulted when the act was planned. Many didn't want to go back to communal land and even rejected the bill. To see the approval rate of the Wheeler Howard Act, the tribes were asked to cast secret votes.

Native Americans discussed changes as a group where people could give their opinions to the community. Secret voting wasn't their custom. It was ironic that the act that was meant to restore their way of life didn't account for their way of voting.

Programs Aimed at Native Americans

The New Deal had programs that were aimed specifically at Native Americas. One such program was the Civilian Conservation Corps - Indian Division (CCC-ID). The Civilian Conservation Corps employed young, unmarried men to work on conservation projects. The CCC-ID employed Native American men, regardless of age, to work on reservation projects. They built fences, buildings, electrical wires, and more.

Fig. 3 - The CCC was established in 1933 to provide jobs and vocational training to unemployed young men during the Great Depression, through work related to the conservation and development of rural, mostly forested lands owned by the government.

The CCC-ID would first employ men from the tribe and if there were not enough men for the task, then they would employ men from other tribes. The CCC-ID men would live in their homes or be given an allotment to pay for their living situations. Cabins were built for families who had to travel for work. The Work Progress Administration (WPA) built schools, hospitals, and homes in reservations.

Impacts of the New Deal on Native Americans

The New Deal had a transformative impact on many Native American communities. The Indian Reorganization Act, part of the New Deal legislation, ended the allotment policy which had led to the loss of tribal lands, and promoted tribal self-governance and economic development. However, the Act was controversial and met with mixed results. Some tribes saw it as a chance to rebuild their communities and regain some level of sovereignty, while others resisted the changes, viewing them as another form of federal control.

Despite its flaws, the Act represented a significant shift in U.S. policy towards Native Americans.

Native Americans also weren't consulted when New Deal programs were constructed for them. The BIA eventually hired indigenous people, giving them a voice for Native American issues. The indigenous people weren't leading the BIA, so most of the decisions made for indigenous people were made by white people.

Higher education was encouraged for Native Americans, while the CCC-ID created jobs, but neither of these programs ended poverty on reservations. Indigenous Americans remained the lowest income group in the country.

The Wheeler Howard Act ended the Dawes Act and returned reservation land that the government hadn't sold yet to the original tribes. It didn't return the land that the government sold, nor did it properly reimburse tribes for sold land.

Fig 4 - The New Deal, particularly through the Indian Reorganization Act, affected Native American lands by ending the allotment policy that had resulted in significant loss of tribal lands.

The bans on ceremonial dance, religious practices, and cultural arts were lifted. It was encouraged for Native Americans to buy and sell art. They were even employed to do so through the Work Progress Administration. The tribal councils were re-established and were given a small fraction of their power back.

Effect of New Deal on Native Americans

The funding and changes made in favor of indigenous tribes didn't last. When World War II began, the funding ceased to come in. Native Americans volunteered and fought in World War II, just as they had in World War I. Some even worked important jobs as code breakers. After the war, the government began to walk back on the policies toward indigenous people. The New Deal policies aimed at Native Americans were short-lived and didn't last after the New Deal ended.

According to historian Graham D. Taylor, the New Deal programs were spearheaded by John Collier. When he left the Bureau of Indian Affairs, his goals left with him. Native Americans weren't consulted about the New Deal and many didn't agree with the New Legislation. In the 1920s, it became a popular belief that indigenous people were inferior and incapable of assimilation. Native Americans faced these misconceptions before, during, and after the New Deal.¹

Native Americans and the New Deal

The New Deal created programs and policies aimed at helping Native Americans. Though the government wanted to help, it still wanted indigenous people to assimilate. Native Americans were hesitant to accept the help because the government had abused them in the past. Legislation like the Wheeler Howard Act ended harmful acts aimed toward Native Americans but didn't do enough to address the issues of poverty and forced assimilation.

Even the New Deal programs that were beneficial to Native Americans had negative endings. The programs ended with World War II when the government, as the indigenous people feared, went back on their word, yet again.