Spanish-American War

Spanish-American War Causes

Many factors caused the Spanish-American War, with one specific incident triggering the war. U.S. interests in Cuba included a $50 million investment in sugarcane production and a telegraph network, trade, and protection of U.S. citizens residing on the small, Spanish-controlled island.

With instability increasing, U.S. President William McKinley sent the USS Maine, a battleship, to Havana. The peaceful mission was to protect U.S. interests and citizens in the middle of conflict on the island. On February 15, 1898, the ship blew up in the harbor killing over 250 of the less than 400-member crew. American newspapers immediately labeled the incident as Spanish sabotage, and the American public demanded revenge. The U.S. Navy determined in March that a mine had destroyed the ship. Although decades later, it was concluded that an accidental boiler explosion was the cause of the blast that rocked the gunpowder-filled vessel.

Yellow Journalism and the Spanish-American War

American newspapers such as the New York Journal and New York World ran bold, sensational stories portraying the Cuban situation as a struggle against brutal Spanish tyranny. Stories often based on false information were designed to increase newspaper sales between the two dueling newspapers run by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, respectively.

The Maine incident escalated the news battle with drastic consequences. Immediate reporting that a Spanish mine sunk the ship and took hundreds of U.S. lives angered the readers. Average citizens and leaders in Washington echoed the call for war against Spain.

Major Battles of the Spanish-American War

What were some of the major battles of the Spanish-American War?

The Spanish-American War in the Atlantic-Caribbean Region

The U.S. war against Spain was focused on Cuba since over 120,000 Spanish troops were stationed less than 100 miles from Florida. After the destruction of the USS Maine, a diplomatic solution to the crisis was sought but was ineffective. Spain eventually declared war on the United States as it would rather fight than grant independence to Cuba.

War preparations in both countries and a U.S. desire for vengeance and the liberation of Cuba dominated the public sentiment. A subsequent U.S. naval blockade around Cuba and the call-up of over 125,000 service members led to a full declaration of war in April. The naval battle against the weaker Spanish Navy at Santiago Bay was a clear success for the U.S. forces.

U.S. forces experienced more casualties due to tropical disease than Spanish weapons in a series of land battles in a tropical environment. While a small invasion easily took control of the Spanish defenders of Puerto Rico, the island of Cuba was a greater challenge. The more numerous and better equipped Spanish infantry troops famously defended the island in battles such as San Juan (and Kettle) Hill. The former U.S. Assistant of Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, resigned his position to lead the U.S. 1^st Volunteer Cavalry Regiment known as the Rough Riders in battle. This secured his war record and led to the presidency a few years later. The American troops prevailed against the Spanish Army under General José Toral y Velázquez during the summer of 1898.

Maps of Spanish-American War Battle Locations

The Spanish-American War in the Pacific Region

The United States' war against Spain in the Philippines was marked by a dramatic naval battle followed by a small land campaign. The most famous component of this part of the war was the legendary defeat of the Spanish Fleet at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. U.S. modern vessels commanded by Commodore George Dewey sunk the entire Spanish fleet under the charge of Admiral Patricio Montojo. The engagement resulted in no American losses. This sealed the Spanish fate in the Pacific. In one naval encounter, the U.S. Navy became a modern, capable sea force. While the outdated Spanish Navy lost its status as a great navy. The United States would join the Filipino revolutionaries in routing the Spanish forces, bringing about surrender and the United States' occupation of the land. Ironically, after the Spanish defeat, the United States would resume the war in the Philippines against its former Filipino allies as it took on the role of colonizing imperialism. In particular, the Filipino military and political leader Emilio Aguinaldo shifted from military ally to bitter adversary.

Effects of the Spanish-American War

The United States benefitted from its role in the Spanish-American War. Since America entered the war in the noble pursuit of liberating the Cuban people, its positive image was enhanced by the outcome. Even though the Paris Peace Treaty denied the Cuban revolutionaries a say in the process, the result was the independent Cuban Republic. America's sugar industry and assorted commercial industries benefitted from the Spanish withdrawal. The U.S. military established a permanent U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay (still in possession by the United States). Cuba was a legal protectorate of the United States until 1934, under which American politics guided its policy and maintained its security. Many praised the new power the United States gained after a relatively short war as evidenced in this famous quote:

With the Spanish Navy's decline and the U.S. Navy's success, U.S. foreign goals had increased in naval support. The relatively small U.S. Army proved its ability to fight in challenging environments against a better equipped and more experienced enemy. With less than 400 combat U.S. deaths across two oceans, military leadership minimized thousands of deaths due to tropical diseases and the limits of moving and supplying U.S. forces overseas. The new roles of America as a colonial leader and military victor were effects of this turning point in U.S. History.

Spanish-American War Territorial Losses

The loss of the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific and Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean were steep losses for Spain. With the majority of the already obsolete Spanish naval squadron destroyed and valuable naval bases lost, Spain was weakened and threatened with further colonial rebellion in Latin America. During the hostilities, America also annexed the Hawaiian islands, subduing resistance from the Hawaiian monarchy. In December 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the war. The United States agreed to pay Spain's King Alfonso XIII 20 million dollars for the Philippines and received the islands of Puerto Rico and Guam in the settlement. These new territories increased U.S. power internationally and resulted in peaceful control of Guam and Puerto Rico that continues today. The Philippines soon turned into a new battleground with U.S. forces battling Filipinos seeking complete independence from colonial control.

Spanish-American Wars Consequences: Independence

Throughout Latin America and the Pacific, independence movements in the 19^th century expanded. European nations had solid economic and military control over their colonies, but political control was harder to maintain. The Spanish government had the most extensive arrangement of colonies in Latin America, and rebellion was common. Throughout the early 1800s, country by country in Latin America fought for independence. Spain steadily lost its colonies in the Western Hemisphere, culminating with the loss of Cuba in 1898.

Spanish-American War Timeline

• 1492 – Christopher Columbus begins Spanish control of Cuba.

• 1823 – U.S. President James Monroe issues the Monroe Doctrine, cautioning Europeans to leave control of the region to 'Americans.'

• 1868 – 1898 - Multiple unsuccessful Cuban rebellions against Spanish rule.

• January 1898 – U.S. battleship USS Maine was sent to Cuba to protect the U.S. economic and political interests.

• February 1898 – U.S. battleship USS Maine explodes, killing the majority of the crew.

• April 1898 – U.S. Naval blockade, military call-up, and Congressional declaration of war on Spain.

• May 1898 – U.S. Navy defeats Spanish Navy in Manila Bay, Philippines.

• June 1898 – U.S. troops landed in Cuba and began fighting.

• July 1898 – U.S. Navy defeats Spanish Navy around Cuba.

• August 1898 – U.S. military victories lead to a cease-fire; concurrently, Hawaii becomes a U.S. territory.

• December 1898 – The treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the war.

• February 1899 – U.S. Senate ratifies the Treaty of Paris, making Cuba independent and Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines territories of the U.S.