The New Nation of America

America: Birth of the New Nation

In 1786, several events exposed the inherent weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. In August, Shays' Rebellion broke out in Massachusetts, showing the federal government's ineptitude in intervening during a national crisis. In September, the Annapolis Convention was held to propose amendments to the Articles to help with the growing national financial crisis. But it was poorly attended, and Congress planned a new conference for the spring of 1787 in Philadelphia. The Constitutional Convention, also known as the Philadelphia Convention, was held from May to September 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation. However, as the delegates arrived, a sentiment grew that perhaps the United States needed a new form of federal government.

American Constitution

The U.S. Constitution, from its creation, was seen as a controversial system. Praised as a solution to the nation's issues under the Articles of Confederation and condemned as a twisting of republican principles. Critics have charged that republican institutions worked only in small political units–the states. In contrast, advocates state that the Constitution extended republicanism by adding another layer of government elected by the people. In this hybrid political system, the new national government would exercise limited, delegated powers, and the existing state governments would retain authority over all other matters. During the summer of 1787, the delegates of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia debated and compromised about representation, federal and state powers, and the protection of state and individual rights.

The Great Compromise

This is the resolution proposed by Connecticut Delegates, specifically Roger Sherman, during the Constitutional Convention that combined the Virginia Plan by James Madison and the New Jersey Plan by William Paterson to establish the foundational structure of the Legislative Branch of the U.S. Constitution. Created a bicameral system in which the House of Representatives lower House will be elected at large, and representation was proportional to a state's population. The Upper House, the Senate, would be elected by state legislatures, and each state has proportional representation with two Senators.

The Three-fifths Compromise

Because the southern states would benefit most from allowing slave representation, the northern states and their delegates at the Constitutional Convention began a heated debate over appropriating population and wealth to the issue of representation.

The Convention rejected the proposal for enslaved people to count equally in the House, but the debate continued. James Wilson of Pennsylvania proposed a compromise to allow the Convention to move on from the topic: Representation would be based on a free population plus three-fifths of the rest. The three-fifths figure was familiar to the delegates because an amendment had been proposed to Congress under the Articles of Confederation in 1783. Wilson's proposal for using three-fifths of "all other peoples" passed by nine states to two.

The Federalist Papers

Fig. 2- An advertisement for the Federalist Papers

Authored by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym "Publius," the Federalist Papers consist of eighty-five essays expressing support for the new U.S. Constitution and a robust federal government system. Published for the public of New York as a means of persuading the state to ratify the Constitution, the Federalist Papers are now crucial documents into the reasoning, interpretation, and intent of the Constitution from the point of view of these three founding fathers.

The Bill of Rights

The weak national government under the Articles of Confederation created many problems. In 1787 these problems finally led to the Constitutional Convention to draft a new charter for the federal government, the U.S. Constitution. However, the Constitution's lack of a bill of rights became why many people opposed it. Many states refused to ratify the U.S Constitution until they were assured a bill of rights would be added. Even after three-fourths of the states ratified the Constitution in 1788. Some states threatened to call a second convention to weaken the government's powers. The struggle did not end until a bill of rights was finally added to the Constitution in 1790.

A New Nation: The United States of America

Though the ratification of the U.S. Constitution by New Hampshire in 1788 made it the new government of the United States, the last state to ratify the Constitution was Rhode Island in May 1790. By then, George Washington had already been inaugurated as the first president of the United States, and the new federal government began to take shape, led by Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams, and flex its new centralized powers.

The New Nation of America Leaders

The new nation is created in the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia. However, the role and function of this new government were tested, expanded, and pruned by the time of the presidential election of 1800. Under the leadership of George Washington and his cabinet and advisors and the Presidency of John Adams, the foundation of the new nation of America is set.

President George Washington (1789 - 1797)

George Washington was unanimously elected President of the United States in 1789 and 1792. He oversaw the establishment of many of the departments and systems of government through the U.S. Constitution. Washington appointed the nation's first court officials, judges, and justices. He also filled his cabinet with several influential, juxtaposed founding fathers, such as Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, and John Adams as his vice president.

Presidency of John Adams (1797-1801)

Fig. 4- Gilbert Stuart's portrait of President John Adams

In 1796, John Adams' political party was the Federalists' nomination for President, running in opposition to Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republicans. These factions and political parties had formed during Washington's administration as conflicting political ideologies over the central government's power divided the new country's leaders. The Federalists moved to create policies to fortify a strong central government, while the Democratic-Republicans championed a system that delegated more power to the States. Adams wins the election by a very narrow margin.

John Adams' presidency did not accomplish many Federalist goals as the Democratic-Republicans used their power in the legislative branch to slow down the legal process. However, Adams' legal and European expertise came to use very quickly. France and England were at war, and the U.S. felt the repercussions caused by maritime trade issues and partisanship within the nation. Adams took swift action; he:

• pushed Congress to approve funding for three new warships,
• pass the Alien and Sedition Act, and
• raise funds for a provisional army.

Though he never declared war, Adams did send the new warships to defend the U.S. merchant fleet, and they were successful. France, who could not afford a two-front war, began negotiations with the United States to end naval hostilities and open trade, completing what is now known as the "Quasi-War."

The New Nation of America: Summary

By the election of 1800, the systems and structures of the new government under the U.S. Constitution were established. Built by the Washington administration and tested by the Adams administration, the system of checks and balances and tests to the separation of powers began to align people to political ideologies.

The last test of the new nation would be the transfer of power from the federalist administration of Adams to the Democratic-Republicans of Thomas Jefferson in 1800. With this transition, the political system of the United States was fortified, and the Age of Jefferson would take hold of the nation for the next two decades.