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Allen Dulles's first triumph came in 1953 in Iran. In the view of the Dulles brothers, Premier Mohammed Mossadegh had drawn too close to the Tudeh, Iran's Communist party, and would have to be overthrown before he made a deal with the Russians. Mossadegh had already nationalized Iran's oil fields, to the dismay of the British, who previously had enjoyed a monopoly on Iranian oil production." 1
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Sign up for freeThe U.S. mediated the Camp David Accords between which countries?
When did NATO invade Libya?
During the Cold War, who were U.S. partners in the Middle East?
When did the U.S. first engage in the Middle East?
When was the Red Line Agreement signed?
Which empire lost control of the Middle East after World War I?
In which key export product from the Middle East is the U.S. interested?
Which country went from being a U.S. partner to its opponent during the Cold War?
When did the Iran hostage crisis happen?
Which country is NOT in the Middle East?
When did the Gulf War happen?
The U.S. mediated the Camp David Accords between which countries?
When did NATO invade Libya?
During the Cold War, who were U.S. partners in the Middle East?
When did the U.S. first engage in the Middle East?
When was the Red Line Agreement signed?
Which empire lost control of the Middle East after World War I?
In which key export product from the Middle East is the U.S. interested?
Which country went from being a U.S. partner to its opponent during the Cold War?
When did the Iran hostage crisis happen?
Which country is NOT in the Middle East?
When did the Gulf War happen?
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Team US and Middle East Teachers
The first director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Allen Dulles, regime change, Iranian oil, the Communist Party, the Soviet Union, and British commercial interests: this is the complexity of Cold War-era politics in the United States and the Middle East.
Fig. 1 - Two Christians and a Druze, Lebanon, by Pascal Sebah, 1873.
US relations with the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) grew after the First World War (1914-1919). At this time, the US engagement in the Middle East was primarily focused on supporting American business interests, especially oil and diplomacy.
As the US became a superpower after the Second World War (1939-1945), its engagement in the Middle East significantly increased. Beyond oil, the US also found strategic value in supporting certain countries like Israel. After all, the Middle East is a geographic region that links Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia.
Fig. 2 - Middle East map, 1992, by the CIA, no known copyright restrictions.
The term "Middle East" came from 19th-century Europe rather than the inhabitants of this region themselves.
The Middle East is a geographic region that includes Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Syria, Qatar, Kuwait, Jordan, Bahrain, Oman, and Israel.
Sometimes, the Middle East includes the southern Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan) and Turkey. Other times, the Middle East is grouped with North Africa (MENA) for religious, cultural, and geographic reasons, including Egypt and Libya.
Before the middle of the 20th century, different colonial powers controlled the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire ruled over such present-day countries as Saudi Arabia and Syria. After this empire dissolved, some countries found independence, whereas others were under European mandates. Two agreements are essential in this context because they redefined the borders in the region:
European postwar mandates meant that Britain controlled Palestine until 1948, and France controlled Syria until 1946.
The relationships between the US and countries of the Middle East have changed over time. The relevant factors include the American behavior in the region, the domestic politics of each given country, the global political situation, such as the transition from the Cold War, and economic factors like the demand for petroleum products.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the US presence in the Middle East was focused on two key areas:
Regarding diplomacy, the US recognized newly-established states such as Saudi Arabia in 1931. In turn, Saudi Arabia allowed Standard Oil, an American company, to have a concession (government permit) on its territory.
Similar business relations formed elsewhere. When a large oil field was found in Iraq, Britain, France, and the US signed the Red Line Agreement (1928), splitting the share through the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC). The US was represented by the Near East Development Corporation (ExxonMobil).
Big business interests like this went beyond commerce. Professor of Journalism, Steve Coll, argued that energy giants like ExxonMobil shaped the subsequent American foreign policy.2
Fig. 3 - The Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, next to President Nixon, 1969.
As American power increased after the Second World War, so did its involvement in the Middle East. During the Cold War (1945-1991), the US subscribed to a foreign policy of containment. The latter meant that Communism was to be challenged in every corner of the world along with America's rival, the Soviet Union.
As a result, the Middle East featured a balance-of-power arrangement. Regional players belonged to either the American bloc or the Soviet bloc. For example, Syria usually sided with the Soviet Union, whereas Israel—with the United States.
| Country | Relationship with the US. |
| Israel |
|
| Saudi Arabia |
|
| Egypt |
|
| Iran |
|
| Iraq |
|
| Syria |
|
Fig. 4 - John Kennedy and King Saud bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud with daughter Princess Dalal, Palm Beach, Florida, 1962.
There are similarities and differences between the United States and the Middle East. The Middle East is also ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse. The multitude of ethnic groups includes those who have lived in this region for centuries and more recent arrivals. The differences have not prevented the US from creating partnerships in the region.
One example is the historically amicable relationship between the US and Saudi Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a theocratic monarchy—ruled by a royal family with a strong emphasis on religion—with a questionable track record of human rights. In contrast, the US describes itself as a liberal democracy.
However, the historical relationship with the US has been focused on mutually beneficial economic matters, such as petroleum products and weapons.
The Middle East is home to many ethnic groups, including:
The Middle East is the birthplace of the three largest religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Smaller religious groups include the Druze. Each essential religion features several denominations. Some countries, like Saudi Arabia and Israel, are majority Sunni and Jewish, respectively. Other countries, like Lebanon, are more evenly balanced between Shia and Sunni Muslims and Christian groups.
| Religion | Branches |
| Judaism |
|
| Christianity | Orthodox
Catholic
Protestant
|
| Islam | Sunni
Shia
Sufi |
Several conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa involved the US. In many disputes, the US supplied one or more sides with weapons, as was the case with Israel after the 1960s. In other conflicts, the US was involved directly or as part of NATO, as was the case with the NATO invasion of Libya in 2011.
Fig. 5 - Iraqi tanks during the Gulf War.
| Date | Conflict | Description |
| 1982 | 1982 Lebanon War | The US sent Marines to the war in Lebanon after the US ally Israel invaded the country. Israel claimed it sought to expel the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLO) from southern Lebanon as a pretext. |
| 1980-1991 | Iran-Iraq War | The US backed Iraq during this war by selling Iraq weapons. However, it also indirectly provided Iran with weapons, despite the arms embargo—an event known as the Iran-Contras Affair (1985-1987). |
| 1991 | Gulf War | After the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the US-led attack pushed Iraq out through Operations Desert Storm and Desert Shield. |
| 2003 | Iraq War | In 2003, the US invaded Iraq in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and the war on terror. The US also claimed that the Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction, which proved erroneous. As a result, the American occupation of Iraq and failed attempts at state-building lasted for years leading to chaos and extremism. |
| 2011 | NATO invasion of Libya | United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 allowed NATO to strike Libya, back extremist militants, and topple its leader Muammar Gaddafi. NATO's invasion led to regional chaos, a refugee crisis, and open-air slave markets selling sub-Saharan Africans. |
| 2011 | Syrian Civil War | The US-backed various extremist insurgent groups in the Syrian Civil War against the Syrian government. |
| 2014 | Yemeni Civil War | A war began in Yemen in 2014. The US has been supplying Saudi Arabia with weapons to strike Yemen. |
Historians and political strategists have different views about the US involvement in the Middle East.
The pros are:
The cons include:
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When did the US get involved with the Middle East?
The U.S. began to increase its presence in the Middle East in the 1920s. The First World War led to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which historically controlled parts of the Middle East. This geopolitical change led to the rise of independent states such as Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Postwar European decolonization from the region also led to the formation of other independent countries like Syria. American engagement in the Middle East in the 1920s and 1930s occurred within the economic framework with a particular focus on the petroleum industry in Saudi Arabia and Iraq.
What countries make up the Middle East?
The Middle East comprises such countries as Saudi Arabia, Oman, Lebanon, Qatar, Syria, Kuwait, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Bahrain, and Israel. Sometimes the term includes Turkey and the southern Caucasus.
What does the US want with the Middle East?
The U.S. is interested in the Middle East for geopolitical and economic reasons. First, the location of Middle Eastern countries, connecting Europe, Africa, and Asia, is important. Second, the Middle East has many resources: it is the source of fossil fuels like oil.
Why is the Middle East so important?
The presence of energy resources like petroleum is important for the rest of the world relying on such resources. For example, the organization OPEC comprises countries in the Persian Gulf located in the Middle East. Second, the Middle East lies between North Africa, Europe, and Central Asia. Its location makes it an important hub.
What was the Middle East called before?
The term "Middle East" originated with the Europeans in the 19th century. This term covers the geographic region encompassing such countries as Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Israel. Today's language often groups the Middle East with North Africa and such countries as Egypt (the Middle East and North Africa, MENA) for political, cultural, and religious reasons.
In the past, this region, or parts of this region had different names. Mesopotamia referred to the territory along the Tigris–Euphrates river, including present-day Iraq and Syria. Near East referred to the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the term Levant (or East Mediterranean) historically referred to Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, and Israel.
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