US Occupation of Haiti

US Occupation of Haiti and the Dominican Republic

Haiti and the Dominican Republic are the two countries on the Island of Hispaniola. The island is located in the West Indies, in the middle of a triangle of Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. Its proximity to the United States and other areas of US influence, like Cuba and Puerto Rico, has long made the Island of Hispaniola of interest to the United States.

President Andrew Johnson suggested that the US seize the island as far back as 1868. Nonetheless, the US took half a century to start its occupation plans.

US Occupation of Haiti: Causes

Since achieving independence from France in 1804, Haiti had gone through a great deal of instability and a massive running foreign debt.

This combination of domestic political instability and foreign economic interest in Haiti made the island a serious concern for the United States due to fears that it may come under the control of a major European power. This was particularly true of France, which had managed to keep Haiti in perpetual debt.

Besides France's long-standing interest in Haiti, Germany was making efforts to increase its influence on Haiti. Previous US attempts at making inroads into Haiti included endeavors to lease land for a naval base and a large loan made in 1910, which failed to alleviate Haiti's foreign debt.

US Interests in Haiti

Haiti had been of interest to the National City Bank of New York, which had been attempting to take control of the National Bank of Haiti. The Haitian National Bank was actually run by France, who took a commission on all of the Haitian government's economic activities. When the suspicion of the Haitian government and people reached a crescendo, at which some bank employees on the island were arrested, the bank was reorganized by the French and Germans as the Bank of the Republic of Haiti. National City Bank purchased many shares of the bank alongside the French and Germans, leaving Haiti's National Bank totally in the control of foreign banks.

Roger Farnham

The most critical single individual in galvanizing the US government in support of invention in Haiti was a man named Roger Farnham. Farnham had spent time working as a journalist in the Caribbean, a lobbyist, and then as vice president of National City Bank. This combination of direct knowledge of Haiti from his time as a journalist, influential connections from his time as a lobbyist, and interest in the affairs of National City Bank placed Farnham in a unique position as the most influential person on US Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan. He had replaced state department experts on the region with political allies upon taking office.

In 1912, he convinced the state department to support an American takeover of the customs operation in Haiti, which the Haitian government refused to allow, resulting in the National City Bank cutting off the country from needed capital.

Two years later, in 1914, Farnham convinced Bryan to send US Marines to take $500,000 in gold from Haiti's National Bank for "safekeeping" with National City Bank or US businesses would leave Haiti, taking advantage that Bryan wanted the US to remain involved in the island affairs.

Fig.2 - US Marines in Haiti

The United States Occupation of Haiti 1915-1934

Another Haitian President, Jean Vilbrun Guillaume Sam, was killed in 1915 by a mob after he brutally executed 167 political rivals. Bryan convinced Woodrow Wilson to support an occupation, which began with an invasion by 300 Marines, who killed the only Haitian soldier who offered resistance.

When the US sought a new leader for Haiti, Senate leader Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave and rebel leader Rosalvo Bobo were selected as candidates. The US preferred Dartiguenave over the more violent and uncontrollable Bobo, which led to Dartiguenave being approved as president by the Haitian Senate.

Fig.3 - Dartiguenave

US Occupation of Haiti: Occupation Government

The US took direct control of customs, banks, and the national treasury of Haiti and seized 40% of the government's revenue for the payment of debts to loans held by the US and France. In 1915, Haiti was forced to ratify a treaty increasing US control of Haiti. State Department officials had administrative control over the economy, and the Navy controlled the infrastructure.

Initially, the treaty was to last for ten years, but it was extended to twenty before being cut short after 19 years. When the Haitian legislature refused to ratify a new constitution written by the United States in 1917, Dartinguenave and armed US Marines dissolved the Senate. A different constitution redacted according to the US direction was eventually approved in 1918.

Gendarmerie

One of the first acts of the occupation was to dismantle the Haitian military. Its replacement was a military police force known as the Gendarmerie. The leadership of the Gendarmerie came from the American Military. While Haiti had a history of military forces more loyal to specific political leaders, the Gendarmerie intended to create a force that was not political but aimed at maintaining order inside Haiti. The Gendarmerie was also used to enforce a forced labor program called Corvée, which forced Haitians to work on infrastructure projects like road construction.

The person tasked with the creation of the Gendarmerie and dissolving the Senate was Smedley Butler. Eventually rising to the rank of General, Butler was a significant figure in many US foreign interventions of the period. Eventually, Butler wrote a book called War is a Racket, where he acknowledged that corporate interests were driving US foreign military interventions.

Later Occupation and End

In 1922, Luis Borno took the presidency of Haiti, increased forced labor, and jailed critics. This policy raised resentment among Haitians. The Les Cayes Massacre–in which between twelve and twenty-two Haitians were killed by Marines while peacefully protesting the occupation–brought unwelcome international attention. This is why the US looked for a way out of Haiti.

The Forbes Commission sent by President Hoover investigated the situation and recommended direct local elections before violent rebellion developed. A nationalist government was elected in 1930 that worked out an agreement for US withdrawal, signed on August 7, 1933. The last Marines left the island in 1934.

Fig.4 - Marines Lower Flag Leaving Haiti

US occupation of Haiti: Deaths

The US occupation of Haiti resulted in many deaths at the hands of US Marines and the Gendarmerie. Photos of an executed nationalist leader were given out by Marines as an intimidation tactic. Not just rebel prisoners were executed but whole villages, including children. Some investigations and even trials were brought against Marines for the murders in Haiti, but generally, there were no consequences. Additionally, many Haitians died in forced labor while working on infrastructure projects. Overall many thousands of Haitians died as a result of the occupation.

Impact of US occupation of Haiti

Although a great deal of infrastructure was built, it was not always of high quality and came at a high cost in forced labor to save money. The economy improved, but much of the money came from exports, which American corporations controlled, while many rural poor starved. The Haitian government still owed a significant amount of money to US banks at the end of the occupations, which swallowed government revenues. Haiti would continue to experience poverty and political instability.