Patriarchy

History of patriarchy

Though the history of patriarchy is not completely clear, evolutionary psychologists and anthropologists generally agree that human society was characterised by relative gender equality in prehistory. Some suggest that patriarchal social structures came about after the development of agriculture but aren't sure what specific factors catalysed its development.

The sociobiological view, which was influenced by the evolutionary ideas of Charles Darwin, proposes that male dominance is a natural feature of human life. This view often refers back to a time when all humans were hunter-gatherers. The physically stronger men would work together and hunt animals for food. As women were "weaker" and the ones who bore children, they would tend to the home and gather resources such as fruits, seeds, nuts and firewood.

After the agricultural revolution, which is thought to have been discovered thanks to women's observations of their environment, more complex civilisations began to form. Humans no longer had to relocate to find food and could produce food by planting crops and domesticating animals. Naturally, wars followed in which groups of male fighters would clash to protect their tribes or steal resources. Victorious warriors were celebrated and worshipped by their societies, who would honour them and their male offspring. Male dominance and patriarchal societies developed as a result of this historical trajectory.

Statue of Aristotle, at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

The works of Ancient Greek politicians and philosophers such as Aristotle often depict women as inferior to men in all regards. They suggest that it is the world's natural order for women to hold less power than men. Such sentiments were likely circulated by Alexander the Great, a student of Aristotle.

In 1884, Frederic Engels, a friend and colleague of Karl Marx, published a treatise based on communist ideals titled The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State. It suggested that patriarchy was established because of private property ownership and inheritance, which men dominated. However, some studies have discovered records of patriarchal societies that predate the system of property ownership.

Modern feminists have different views on how patriarchy came about. However, the prevailing view is that patriarchy is an artificial development, not a natural, biological inevitability. Gender roles are social constructs created by humans (mostly men), which have gradually become ingrained in patriarchal structures and institutions.

Characteristics of patriarchy

As seen above, the concept of patriarchy is closely associated with male figureheads in public and private spheres, or 'the rule of the father'. As a result, there is also a hierarchy among men within the patriarchy. In the past, older males ranked above younger males, but patriarchy also allows younger men to rank above older men if they possess authority. Authority can be obtained through experience or knowledge of a specific field or simply from physical strength and intelligence, depending on context. Authority then generates privilege. In a patriarchal system, women are excluded from the upper reaches of this hierarchy. Some men are also excluded because of social class, culture, and sexuality.

Many feminists often emphasise that they aim for equality, not dominance over, men. Patriarchy has negative consequences for men and women in the modern world. The difference is, that men have an advantage in improving their status in society, whilst patriarchal structures actively prevent women from catching up.

Patriarchal Society

Sociologist Sylvia Walby has identified six structures she believes ensure t

Sociologist Sylvia Walby, 27/08/2018, Anass Sedrati, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons

he male dominance by restricting female progression. Walby believes that men and women shape these structures whilst acknowledging that not all women encounter them in the same way. Their effect on women depends on race, social class, culture, and sexuality. The six structures can be summarised as follows:

Patriarchal states: Walby holds that all states are patriarchal structures in which women are restricted from occupying significant power and decision-making roles, including the resources of the State. Therefore, women face extreme inequalities in representation and involvement in governance and judicial structures. Thus, the structures mentioned above are also patriarchal and continue to exclude women within state institutions. The state is the most significant structure that breeds and maintains patriarchy in all other institutions.

Household Production: This structure refers to women's work in households and could involve cooking, ironing, cleaning and child-rearing. The main focus is not the nature of the work, but rather the grounds on which the labour is performed. Female labour benefits everyone in the household, yet women are not compensated for it financially, and men are not expected to help either. It is simply an expectation, which, Walby claims,

Paid Work: This structure ostracises women from specific fields of work or restricts their advancement within it, meaning women can sometimes be as qualified as men but be less likely to be promoted or be paid less than a man to do the same job. The latter is referred to as the pay gap. This structure also manifests itself in poor job opportunities for women compared to men. The main feature of this structure is known as the glass ceiling.

Violence: Men often use physical violence as a form of control to influence a woman's actions or coerce her into obedience. This form of control is perhaps the most 'natural' as physically, men tend to be stronger than women, so it would seem the most natural and instinctual way to overpower them. The term violence encompasses multiple forms of abuse; sexual harassment, rape, intimidation in private and public, or beatings. Although not all men are violent towards women, this structure is well-attested in women's experiences. . As Walby explains,

Culture: Walby focuses on Western cultures and holds that they are intrinsically patriarchal. Therefore, Western cultures have unequal expectations of men and women. Walby believes these are

There are multiple discourses on masculinity and femininity and how men and women should behave, ranging from religious, moral and educational rhetorics. These patriarchal discourses create identities that men and women try to fulfil, reinforcing and further ingraining patriarchy in societies.

The effects of patriarchy are visible in all modern societies. The six structures highlighted by Walby were developed whilst observing Western societies but can also be applied to non-western societies.

Patriarchy Examples

There are many examples of patriarchy that we can look to in societies across the world. The example we will discuss here is the case of Afghanistan. Afghanistan has a traditionally patriarchal society. There is absolute inequality between genders in every aspect of society, with men being family decision-makers. Since the recent Taliban takeover, young girls are no longer allowed to attend secondary education, and women have been banned from sports and government representation. They aren't allowed to go out in public without male supervision.

Even before this, patriarchal beliefs such as 'honour' were still prominent in Afghan society. Women are under immense pressure to adhere to traditional gender norms and roles, such as taking care of the family, cleaning and cooking. If they do something 'dishonourable', it may affect the whole family's reputation, with men expected to "restore" this honour. Punishments can range from beatings to 'honour killings, in which women are killed to protect the family's honour.

Patriarchy all around us:

A different expression of patriarchy also exists in Western societies, such as the United Kingdom. Some examples of this are:

• Women in western societies are encouraged to look feminine and attractive by wearing makeup, watching their weight and shaving their body hair, with television ads, magazines and tabloids constantly advertising these as norms. In the case of body hair, not doing these things is often equated with being lazy or even dirty. Although some men choose to, it is normal for men not to do any of these things

• Family names are automatically inherited through men, with children usually inheriting the father's last name. Furthermore, it is the cultural norm for women who get married to take their husband's family name, whilst there are no historical records of men ever doing so.

• Patriarchy also presents itself in the form of perceptions. When we say the word 'nurse', we automatically think of a woman, as we perceive nursing to be feminine. When we say 'doctor', we often think of a man as being a doctor is associated with being a decision-maker, influential and intelligent.

• Religious organisations, such as the Catholic Church, are also highly patriarchal. Positions of spiritual or teaching authority - such as the episcopate and priesthood - are often reserved for men alone, and women's participation in public worship is limited.