Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: Definition

First, let’s untangle the definition of classical conditioning.

According to John Watson (1913), classical conditioning explains all aspects of human psychology based on Pavlov’s findings and observations.

Classical Conditioning: Key Terms

Before we start, let’s look at defining key terms in classical conditioning.

Classical Conditioning: Psychology

The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov proposed classical conditioning. Pavlov’s dogs inspired his experiment (1897) when he noticed the dogs salivating as soon as his assistant opened their cage doors. The reason behind this was presumed as because they associated the doors opening with receiving food.

Pavlov (1897) decided to test this theory by conducting a new experiment in which, each time, the dogs were given food (stimulus 1), and a bell was sounded (stimulus 2) simultaneously. The dogs slowly learned to associate the ringing of a bell with food (new learned response).

He also observed and investigated the factors that can influence the strength and speed of learning by association and how they can explain some human behaviours, such as neurosis.

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov Experiment

In the 1890s, Pavlov studied salivation in dogs as an expectant response to being fed. He placed a small tube in each dog’s cheek to measure the amount of saliva they produced when being fed. He expected the dogs to salivate at the sight of food. But instead, they salivated at the sound of the footsteps of his assistant, who fed them.

He found that the dogs elicited a similar response to anything (lab assistant) paired with food. Pavlov researched this scientific discovery for many years.

Pavlov concluded from this observation that the unconditioned stimulus is the food, which leads to an unconditioned response, i.e., the dog’s salivation.

Initially, the unconditioned stimulus was food, and the unconditioned response was salivation.

Pavlov strapped the dog into a harness attached to an apparatus that measured the rate and amount of salivation in three stages.

1. The dog’s salivation was measured once when only the bell rang. The neutral stimulus (bell) led to no conditioned response.

2. He again measured the saliva when giving food to the dog.

3. Pavlov measured saliva when he rang the bell and presented the food simultaneously.

The steps were repeated to condition the dogs to learn this association.

According to Pavlov, a conditioned response can only be learned if both stimuli coincide. If there is a considerable time difference between the occurrence of the conditioned stimulus (bell) and the unconditioned stimulus (food), the association cannot be learned. This time difference is called temporal contiguity.

Classical Conditioning Examples

Although classical conditioning emerged from animal research, it can be exemplified in various everyday scenarios. One of these examples is the development of a phobia.

Individuals learn to associate something that originally does not evoke fear, such as a spider (the neutral stimulus), with something that triggers the fear response, such as being bitten by the spider (unconditioned stimulus).

Once the association is formed, the spider is the conditioned stimulus, which would trigger the conditioned response, fear. As a consequence of such association, a phobia is developed.

Fig. 1. Example of a stimulus that may trigger fear in some individuals.

Marketing and advertising are also fields in which classical conditioning can be seen.

Classical conditioning in consumer behaviour is a type of learning that can explain buying behaviour. According to this view, individuals develop positive associations towards a given product, which increases its consumption.

Classical Conditioning: Evaluation

Pavlov significantly contributed to the theory of classical conditioning, which many researchers replicated after him. Although Pavlov’s theory formed the basis of classical conditioning, researchers who came after him added some important arguments for and against this theory.

Moreover. the theory of classical conditioning is considered scientific because it uses controlled, empirical experiments to prove the existence of the theories.

Supportive research has arisen from John Watson (1913). In his Little Albert experiment, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a rat. The study showed that classical conditioning could explain how forming associations can lead to learning new behaviours.

Pavlov’s experiment supports the claim that our learning depends mainly on our environment. He rules out the possibility that we can learn some behaviours through the interaction of nature (biological) and the environment (cultivated).

Classical conditioning can be tested in a controlled laboratory setting. However, it may not apply to and explain complex human behaviours such as higher cognitive skills like problem-solving and memory.

Classical conditioning is deterministic in that it constrains the individual’s free will. The theory suggests that animals and humans are passive beings, and we have no control over our behaviour.

Classical and Operant Conditioning: Comparisons

Operant conditioning is another behavioural explanation that explains behaviour in terms of associating a stimulus-response with reinforcement or punishment.

Although classical and operant conditioning shares certain similarities, they are different from one another. Operant conditioning refers to associating an involuntary response, such as salivation, with a response. In operant conditioning, the association is between a stimulus and its consequence.

Or if an individual is punished after performing a particular behaviour, e.g. a cat sitting on the sofa, then the individual is less likely to continue the behaviour. On the other hand, if the learner receives a reward, they are more likely to continue the behaviour.

In short, the main difference between the two types of conditioning is that in operant conditioning, the stimulus-response occurs based on rewards and punishments. In contrast, classical conditioning is based on associations learned over time.

Fig. 2. Example of a dog trained through operant conditioning