Context-Dependent Memory

Environmental Context-Dependent Memory

The study of Godden and Baddeley (1975) explored the concept of cue-dependent forgetting. They tested memory by seeing whether participants’ recall was better if they learned and were tested in the same context/environment. Participants learned on land or in the sea and were tested on land or in the sea. Researchers found that participants who learned and were tested in the same environment had a better recall because the cues presented aided the retrieval process and improved their memory.

Fig. 1 - Landscape photo of a forest and the sea.

Context-Dependent Memory: Example

You have likely had loads of context-dependent memories triggered throughout your life. They can be straightforward but carry compelling memory experiences.

Context-dependent triggers can evoke memories we might not have revisited for quite some time.

Some studies have explored context-dependent memory in detail. Based on the theory that was derived from Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) study, Grant et al. (1998) further researched the matter of context-dependent memory. They wanted to demonstrate the positive effects of context on memory.

Grant Study Summary

The following summarizes Grant et al.'s (1998) context-dependent memory experiment. Grant et al. (1998) conducted a laboratory experiment with an independent measures design.

The study used headphones and cassette players with a soundtrack of background noise from a cafeteria, a two-page article on psycho-immunology that participants had to study and later recall, 16 multiple-choice questions, and ten short answer questions participants were to answer. Each participant was assigned to only one of the following four conditions:

• Silent learning – Silent testing.
• Noisy learning – Noisy testing.
• Silent learning – Noisy testing.
• Noisy learning – Silent testing.

They read the instructions of the study, which was posed as a class project with voluntary participation. Participants then read the psycho-immunology article and were informed that a multiple-choice and short-answer test would test them. They all wore headphones as a control measure so that it wouldn’t affect their learning. The researchers told the silent condition ones they’d hear nothing and the noisy condition ones that they’d listen to some background noise but ignore it.

Grant et al. (1998): Study Results

Grant et al. (1998) found that performance was significantly better when the studying and testing environments were the same (i.e., silent study - silent testing or noisy study - noisy testing). This was true for both multiple-choice test questions and short-answer test questions. Thus, memory and recall were better when the context/environment was the same than when it was different.

Therefore, we see from the results of this study that context-dependent effects exist for meaningful material learned and will help improve memory and recall. We could apply these findings to real-life situations since it would help students better their performance on exams if they learned in the same environment they would be tested in, i.e., silent conditions. Overall, learning in a quiet environment is the most beneficial to remembering information later, regardless of the test.

Grant et al. (1998): Evaluation

Grant et al. (1998) have strengths and weaknesses we must consider for your exam.

Context-Dependent Memory vs State-Dependent Memory

State-dependent memory is the second type of retrieval failure. Like context-dependent memory, state-dependent memory relies on cues.

Different states can be anything from being drowsy to being drunk.

Carter and Cassaday (1998)

Carter and Cassaday (1998) examined the effects of antihistamine drugs on memory recall. They gave chlorpheniramine to 100 participants, as they have mild sedative effects that make one drowsy. They created an internal state that was different from the normal waking state by doing so.

Researchers then tested participants’ memory by asking them to learn and recall word lists in a drowsy or normal state. The conditions were:

• Drowsy learning – Drowsy recall.
• Drowsy learning – Normal recall.
• Normal learning – Drowsy recall.
• Normal learning – Normal recall.

Fig. 2 - Photo of a man yawning.

In the drowsy-drowsy and normal-normal situations, participants performed better at the task. Researchers found that participants who learned and recalled in different states (i.e., drowsy-normal or normal-drowsy) had significantly worse performance and recall than those who learned in the same state (e.g., drowsy-drowsy or normal-normal). When they were in the same state in both conditions, the relevant cues were present, helping retrieve and improve recall.

State-dependent and context-dependent memory both rely on cues. However, context-dependent memory relies on external cues, and state-dependent memory relies on internal cues. Both types of recall rely on the circumstances of the initial experience, whether it was the context or the state you were in. In both instances, memory recall was better when the circumstances of experience (or learning) and recall were the same.