Ethics and Socially Sensitive Research

Importance of Ethics in Psychology

There are organisations designed to ensure that researchers conduct ethical psychological research. The British Psychological Society (BPS) published The Code of Ethics and Conduct, which provides rules of conduct that researchers should follow in their daily behaviour. Similarly, the American Psychological Association (APA) provides an Ethics Code for all members.

We call these ethical guidelines.

The term ‘research’ encompasses the results of a study and theories. If the research has ethical implications, it may affect the study participants or the general public.

Ethical implications are a risk if the research has not followed appropriate ethical guidelines or has done so inadequately.

BPS ethics

The four ethical principles for researchers to follow at all times are respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity.

The following are the essential BPS ethical considerations that researchers must weigh before conducting research:

• Consent - Participants must have given informed consent, i.e., they have been informed of and agree to the nature of the study or experiment.
• Deception - Participants must not be deceived or misled. The researchers must determine whether they could have avoided it if they had been.
• Debriefing - Participants must be debriefed and allowed to ask questions.
• Withdrawal - Participants must be informed of their right to withdraw from the study or experiment at any time. They also have the right to withdraw their data after completing research.
• Anonymity and confidentiality - Participants have the right to complete anonymity and confidentiality, except in certain situations (e.g., when there is a risk of harm to participants or persons associated with them or the research).
• Participant protection - Participants must be protected from psychological, emotional, and physical harm.

Fig. 1 - Researchers must follow strict ethical guidelines when conducting psychological research.

Socially Sensitive Meaning

Joan Sieber and Barbara Stanley (1988) have used the term ‘socially sensitive’ research to describe research that has potentially negative consequences for those involved, i.e., the research participants or the group of people the research represents.

For a more comprehensive definition, it may be helpful to briefly consider the American Psychological Association’s (APA) definition of socially sensitive research:

Sieber and Stanley suggest four ways in which research can be socially sensitive. Researchers should make these considerations before conducting a study or developing a theory.

Research Question

Before beginning research, the researcher should carefully consider their research question(s) to ensure that they are not biased or harmful in any way. A question such as, ‘Which gender is better at memory processing?’ could be detrimental because it assumes that one gender is better at memory processing than another.

Methodology Used

The methodology used must consider participants' rights to confidentiality and anonymity. Will these rights be compromised if the participant confesses to a crime, for example? Researchers should also keep a cost-benefit analysis in mind.

If the costs of a research (e.g., participant exposure) outweigh the benefits (e.g., a topic that benefits society), the research would be unethical.

Institutional Context

Researchers need to be clear about who is funding the research and its purpose. Is it a government or a private organisation? If it is a private organisation, how will it use the results?

Interpretation and Application of Findings

Researchers should consider how their results will be interpreted and applied in the real world. Will they lead to policy changes? Could they influence social attitudes or values or lead to further research on the same topic? Conducting socially sensitive research may have ethical implications for participants or the general public.

Fig. 2 - Sieber and Stanley (1988) suggested four ways research can be socially sensitive.

Socially Sensitive Research: Examples

Some socially sensitive research examples may include research in the following topics or contexts: Racial or ethnic differences, sex/gender differences, cultural/subcultural differences, and research where participants may experience distress or physical or psychological harm.

Ethical Implications of Milgram’s Shock Experiment (1963)

Stanley Milgram’s (1963) shock experiment is a well-known example of a study with significant ethical implications for its participants. This obedience study found that 65% of participants would intentionally harm another person if asked to do so.

No Informed Consent

Researchers did not inform the participants of the true nature and purpose of the study, which was to test levels of obedience. Therefore, they did not give informed consent to participate in the obedience study.

Distress

Researchers did not tell the participants they would be administering real electric shocks to another person, which was distressing for many participants because they were hesitant and nervous. Some participants suffered seizures. The shocks were not real.They fully debriefed the participants after the experiment. However, there was concern that participants would face more distress if they knew they would harm another person if ordered to do so. When they presented the study results were presented to the public, they expressed shock and concern about the high rate of obedience.

Withdrawal from Experiment

Participants did not feel they could withdraw from the experiment because the researcher (Milgram himself) encouraged them to continue administering shocks.

Ethical Implications of Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

Phillip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) is another well-known example of a study with significant ethical implications for its participants. In this experiment, participants were housed in a prison mock-up and assigned the roles of ‘guards’ and ‘prisoners’.The experiment escalated to the point where it had to cease for fear of further emotional distress and physical violence between guards and prisoners.

Distress

Participants who were prisoners faced significant distress at the hands of the guards, who used numerous ways to gain control over the prisoners. They locked the prisoners in solitary confinement, insulted them, and removed their belongings.The prisoners reported high suffering and psychological trauma during the experiment, yet the experiment continued.

Lack of Objectivity

Zimbardo took on the role of a supervisor during the experiment itself. This study had ethical implications, as the researcher himself lacked objectivity. A conflict of interest arose between Zimbardo’s direct participation and his duty as a researcher to protect the welfare of the participants.

Withdrawal from Experiment

One prisoner reported that he wanted to withdraw from the study but was not allowed to do so.

Fig. 3 - Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) and Milgram’s Shock Experiment (1963) had several ethical implications.

Ethical Implications of Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory (1969)

John Bowlby’s (1969) monotropic theory is a well-known example of a theory with ethical implications for the general public. The monotropic theory states that when a baby is born, there is a critical period during which the baby must form an attachment to a primary caregiver (usually the mother). If a primary giver deprives the baby of this attachment, it can harm their development and future relationships.

Impacts on Mothers

The theory can have a detrimental effect on mothers, who probably feel they should stay home with their babies to avoid disrupting bonding. This implication can be problematic, especially if they need or want to return to work. Other people who think they should be home with their baby may also discriminate against them.This theory may also reinforce that a woman’s ‘natural’ role is a child-bearer.

Impacts on Fathers

If the primary caregivers are usually the mothers, this may impact fathers’ involvement in child care if they feel less important to their baby’s development. This implication may also impact single fathers concerned about whether their mother’s absence will negatively impact their baby.

Benefits of Socially Sensitive Research

We will now look at some of the advantages of socially sensitive research in psychology.

Reducing Prejudice

Conducting socially sensitive research can help reduce prejudice against certain groups or issues in society. When psychologists conduct socially sensitive research that benefits society, society’s understanding and awareness can improve. In turn, a reduction in stigma, discrimination, and prejudice ensues.

Therefore, conducting socially sensitive research in certain social groups can be positive.

Direct Impact on Social Policy and Practices

Socially sensitive research can sometimes directly impact creating or improving social policies and practices. Such changes can be beneficial to society as a whole.

Not all Socially Sensitive Research is Controversial

Although there may be risks, not all socially sensitive research has to be controversial. When psychologists approach to research with proper thought, it can positively affect social groups and society.

Widening Research into Other Groups

You may have heard that psychologists conduct their research mainly on the WEIRD population (Western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic). Also, many of the research participants are white university students. By conducting socially sensitive research on other groups, researchers are helping to redress this imbalance and shed light on different cultures and communities.

History of Ethics in Psychology

Let us now delve into some disadvantages learnt from the history of ethics in psychologists conducting socially sensitive research in psychology. Here we will discuss stereotyping issues in the history of ethics in psychology, how the research was used, and the participants' interests.

Stereotyping

Conducting socially sensitive research can sometimes perpetuate harmful stereotypes that negatively impact certain social groups. When research perpetuates harmful stereotypes, it can lead to discrimination and prejudice.

Use of Research

Psychologists may not be able to influence the use of research findings, and therefore there may be unintended consequences of the research. Governments may use research to improve or shape social policy, which can significantly affect certain social groups and the general public. There is little control over how others use research. This aspect can be problematic depending on the sensitivity of the research.

Participants’ Interests

Depending on the nature of the research, it may affect or negatively impact participants’ interests. These include their emotional or physical well-being (both during and after the research) and their anonymity or confidentiality.