Theories of addiction

Theories of addiction definition

Let's start by defining what we mean by addiction. Although we often associate addiction with illegal drugs, it can also apply to many other things like alcohol, cigarettes, prescription medication or even rewarding behaviours like gambling, gaming or using the internet.

Theories of addiction: Understanding addiction

Addictions involve a loss of control when engaging in addictive behaviour and a feeling of being unable to stop. Over time people build tolerance and the thing they are addicted to stops being as rewarding as it used to, leading to an increase in the addictive behaviour. With time, addiction can start to consume more and more of one's life, leading the person to neglect their responsibilities or any other activities they used to engage in.

Let's look at how a gaming addiction can progress, on the example of Mark.

The problem of addiction remains prevalent, taking a toll on the mental and physical health of many individuals and their communities. Understanding addictions is important for psychologists because it can help inform effective prevention and treatment.

Theories of addiction attempt to explain addiction in terms of general principles (e.g., genetic inheritance or operant conditioning). Both biological and psychological theories of addiction have been proposed, with the former highlighting the influence of nature and the latter the influence of nurture on addiction.

Theories of addiction examples

Some main theories explaining how addiction develops include psychological theories (classical and operant conditioning, social learning theory) and biological theories (genetic explanation of addiction).

Even though none of these explanations appears to be sufficient on its own, in combination, they can provide us with a holistic understanding of the factors underlying this condition.

Psychological theories of addiction

One psychological theory of addiction is the learning theory, which focuses on how nurture (how we are raised) shapes our behaviour. The learning theory identifies several processes through which an individual's addictive behaviour is influenced by their environment.

The processes that are used to explain addictive behaviours include:

• classical conditioning,

• operant conditioning,

• and the social learning theory.

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning works through the association of environmental cues with automatic behaviours. To illustrate how classical conditioning works, we can look back to the famous experiment by Pavlov, where he taught dogs to salivate in response to a bell ringing.

The classical conditioning explanation of addiction proposes that certain environmental cues that we associate with an addictive behaviour can act as a trigger and result in intense craving to engage in the behaviour.

Operant conditioning

According to operant conditioning, behaviours followed by a positive outcome will be repeated, while behaviours followed by a negative outcome will be stopped.

Both behavioural and substance addiction is associated with the reward system of the brain. Every time we engage in the behaviour, our brain is flooded with dopamine, which acts as a positive reinforcer.

Addiction can also be strengthened because they use it to avoid their problems and cope with physical pain or negative emotions. In these situations, the absence of pain is a negative reinforcer.

With time, people addicted to substances often stop being driven by the reward and use to avoid the withdrawal syndrome, which involves a set of painful psychological and physical symptoms. Withdrawal syndrome is an example of positive punishment, making a person less likely to try and quit again in the future.

The process of quitting your addiction might also involve losing friends or losing feelings of euphoria or one's confidence. These are examples of negative punishment which discourage people from quitting.

Even alcohol withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant and life-threatening, freepik.com.

Social learning theory

Classical and operant conditioning appear to play the most part in maintaining addiction, but why do people start to engage in addictive behaviours in the first place? According to the social learning theory, we learn new behaviours by observing and imitating other people in our environment.

Therefore, if we are exposed to people that drink or smoke, we are likely to imitate them and start engaging in these behaviours too. This theory highlights the impact that our peer group or behaviour we see in our family can have on us.

Our motivation to imitate is additionally strengthened by vicarious reinforcement and identification. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when the person who models the behaviour is rewarded for it. If our friend suddenly becomes popular when she starts drinking alcohol, others may be more motivated to imitate her behaviour. Identification can motivate us, too. This occurs when we desire to become more like the model.

Biological theories of addiction

Psychological theories of addiction help explain why people might first engage and then repeat the addictive behaviour. But why do some people become addicted and some don't?

According to the biological theory, addiction can be explained by a genetic vulnerability of an individual. Addiction often runs in families; therefore, it's theorised that it might be the genetic makeup of some individuals that make them much more susceptible to engage in reward-seeking behaviour and become addicted.

However, studies have shown that there is no one specific gene that predicts one's susceptibility or resilience to addiction. There are likely numerous genes that play a factor in this condition. While some might increase one's risk of addiction by changing their physiology, others might indirectly influence one's likelihood of addiction by increasing their tendency to engage in risk-taking or reward-seeking behaviour.

Genetic studies have revealed a genetic component to addictions, freepik.com.

Kaij's (1960) Twin study of alcohol use

One piece of evidence about the genetic contribution to alcohol use comes from the research of Lennart Kaij, that investigated the drinking patterns of twins. Kaij recruited 174 male twin pairs born in Sweden and categorised each twin in one of the five categories of alcohol use based on the interviews with their relatives.

Then he calculated the concordance rates of alcohol use between monozygotic (MZ) twins, which share 100% of their genes and dizygotic (DZ) twins, which only share 50% of their genetic makeup.

The study found that:

• 54% of MZ and 28% of DZ twins shared the same category of alcohol use.

• If one MZ twin met the criteria for chronic alcoholism (the highest category), the chance of their co-twin also meeting the criteria was especially high (72%)

Kaij found that the concordance rates were higher among MZ twins than DZ twins. Greater similarity found between MZ twin pairs suggests that hereditary factors influence the patterns of alcohol use.

Other theories of addiction

Cognitive and sociocultural factors can also influence addictions.

Cognitive theories of addiction

The cognitive theory of addiction points to the influence of our expectancies, thoughts, and beliefs in reinforcing addictive behaviour. People that use psychoactive substances can develop positive expectations about them. These can include expectancies about the substance as healing, helping you become more sociable, productive, calm or improving your mood.

Interventions such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy can be applied to help people develop more balanced and realistic thoughts and beliefs about their substance use.

Sociocultural theory of addiction

The sociocultural theory of addiction recognises the role of social factors and cultural norms in the process of developing an addiction.

In many Western societies, including the UK, recreational use of alcohol is widely accepted, especially during social events or celebrations. But, in other regions of the world, alcohol use is prohibited and frowned upon by society. In countries with less access to alcohol and social influence discourages people from drinking, the prevalence of alcohol addiction is likely to differ.

People affected by social inequalities, discrimination, poverty, or homelessness are at higher risk of developing addictions and relapsing than the general population. It's important to recognise that one's socio-economic situation can lead to significant distress and lower one's ability to cope with everyday difficulties.