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- What is altruism?
- Why do people act in altruistic ways?
- What are theories of altruism?
- What are examples of altruism?
Definition of Altruism
Why do people help others? And when they do, is it for personal gain, or with no expectation for a reward? When people display prosocial behavior (behavior that benefits others), they may do so as an act of altruism.
Altruism is voluntary and intentional behavior that is meant to benefit another with no expectation of return.
However, prosocial behavior is not always the result of altruism. Sometimes, this behavior is the result of some egoistic goal.
Egoistic goals involve people helping others as a means of improving their own welfare such as increasing self-esteem, easing feelings of guilt, receiving praise, or alleviating distress.
Altruism can add several benefits to a person's life including increased social connectedness as well as better mental and physical health.
Altruism in Psychology
Some philosophers and social psychologists do not believe that humans are capable of true altruism. They suggest that at our core, humans recognize some level of personal benefit to exhibiting prosocial behaviors and no act is truly selfless. However, others believe that altruism is possible and is primarily motivated by empathy.
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Empathy is in many ways a uniquely human emotion. It is our ability to not just feel sorry for someone, but to attempt to take on their feelings as if they were our own. Empathy is sympathy, compassion, tenderness, concern, and sorrow all wrapped up in one emotion. The empathy-altruism hypothesis recognizes a relationship between empathy and altruistic behavior.
The empathy-altruism hypothesis suggests that empathic emotion produces altruistic motivation.
According to Eisenberg (2000), developing apathetic feelings and connectedness with others may increase one's likelihood to help.
Altruism and Social Expectations
Sometimes, prosocial behavior is the result of social expectations. For example, it may be socially acceptable to give to a Facebook charity on one's birthday. Or, perhaps it is a social expectation to "pay it forward" when someone buys your coffee, you're expected to buy the person behind you their coffee. These perceived social expectations can be strong motivators for altruism as it is motivated to optimize outcomes of social benefits. In this case, actions are more cognitive processes than empathetic experiences.
Fig. 1 Someone may feel both social and self-expectations to be altruistic by going to church. Freepik.com
Altruism and Self-Expectations
Other times, the moral obligations we feel motivate prosocial behavior. We all have values we live by and when those values are broken it may cause extreme distress. To avoid this and to boost self-worth, one may engage in prosocial behavior. Similar to the activation of social expectations, this theory is also more of a cognitive process than an empathic one. One may also question if prosocial behavior motivated by self-expectations is true altruism, as one may gain the personal benefit of reducing self-concept distress.
Altruism and Genetics
Some theories of altruism allude to Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection. According to Schwartz (1977), some believe altruistic behavior is motivated by some genetic advantage as well as one's need to survive. However, altruism is only genetically advantageous if it is offered to those who are genetically related (kin selection). Altruism puzzles evolutionary researchers when prosocial behaviors are directed toward those who are not genetically related, therefore creating no genetic advantage for an improved chance for survival.
Kin selection is an evolutionary principle that states we are more likely to help people who share the most genes. This is most commonly family and offspring. Protecting one's kin increases the odds of genetic survival in later generations.
When Do People Exhibit Altruism Behavior?
Helping others involves a five-step process.
Notice an event
Interpret as an emergency
Assume responsibility for helping
Know how to help
Decision to help
If any one of these steps is interrupted, it is unlikely for a person to help. For example, if someone does not assume responsibility to help because others are around, it decreases the likelihood that they will help. This concept is referred to as the bystander effect.
The bystander effect refers to a situation in which a person is less likely to offer help when others are present.
The bystander effect usually occurs as a consequence of a diffusion of responsibility which refers to a situation in which people share the responsibility to help.
Fig. 2 People may be less likely to help the houseless due to a diffusion of responsibility. Freepik.com
Take the well-known case of Kitty Genovese who was brutally murdered in her apartment. Several witnesses and neighbors reported that they could hear her screams and cries for help, yet no one called the police until it was far too late. This is a devastating case in which the bystander effect kept Genovese from getting the help she desperately needed. Darley and Latané (1968b) suggested that the neighbors' inactivity was due to the simple fact that others were around.
Factors Increasing Altruism Behavior
Many factors may influence the likelihood of someone offering help. In addition to an increased sense of responsibility, we may be more likely to help if
The person appears to need help and deserves it
The person has similarities to us
The person is a woman
We have time and are not in a hurry
We feel guilty
We are in a good mood
We are not preoccupied
Another possible factor that may increase one's likelihood of helping is simply the awareness of the bystander effect phenomenon. For example, Beaman et al. (1978) performed a study in which some college students are informed of the bystander effect and the control group is not. After two weeks, more than half of the participants who were aware of the bystander effect provided aid to someone in need (situations were staged by researchers) compared to only one-fourth of the control group participants rendering aid.
Altruism Theory
Several altruism theories exist that attempt to explain cases in which a person will exhibit prosocial behavior. These include the social exchange theory, reciprocity norm, and the social-responsibility norm.
Social Exchange Theory
Social psychologists have identified several situations in which one may exhibit altruistic behaviors with the goal of maximizing rewards and minimizing costs. Consequentially, many would not consider this true altruism due to the presence of an exchange.
The social exchange theory suggests that prosocial behavior is the result of some exchange that maximizes reward and minimizes costs.
Altruism Theory: Reciprocity Norm
If someone does something to help us, we usually feel compelled to return help, not harm, to them. This is referred to as the reciprocity norm.
The reciprocity norm is the expectation that people want to offer help, rather than harm, to those who have helped them.
This theory explains why we are more likely to "pay it forward" if someone buys us a coffee because we become more generous when we a treated generously.
Altruism Theory: Social-Responsibility Norm
Finally, in acts of true altruism, we may offer help even if the cost outweighs the reward when it relates to people who are in desperate need or who cannot help themselves. For example, many of us feel especially responsible to help young children and would likely help even if it may put us at risk or offer no reward at all. This is the social-responsibility norm.
The social-responsibility norm refers to the expectation that people will help those who need help.
For example, if someone falls into a pool and they do not know how to swim, people are likely to help, even if it means getting their clothes wet and there is no real reward waiting for them.
Examples for Altruism
Altruism can come in many different forms and can vary greatly depending on the situation. Here are some real-world examples of altruism.
Giving to your church outreach or donating to a local charity
Helping a neighbor with their grocery bags
Donating blood
Sharing your meal with someone
Showing up to a protest as an ally
Taking a friend to the airport
Fig. 3 Donating blood is an act of altruism where one does not expect anything in return. Pixabay.com
Altruism - Key takeaways
- Altruismis voluntary and intentional behavior that is meant to benefit another with no expectation of return
- Altruism can add several benefits to a person's life including increased social connectedness as well as better mental and physical health.
- The empathy-altruism hypothesis suggests that empathic emotion produces altruistic motivation.
- Helping others involves a five-step process.
Notice an event
Interpret as an emergency
Assume responsibility for helping
Know how to help
Decision to help
The bystander effect refers to a situation in which a person is less likely to offer help when others are present.
The social exchange theory suggests that prosocial behavior is the result of some exchange that maximizes reward and minimizes costs.
The reciprocity norm is the expectation that people want to offer help, rather than harm, to those who have helped them.
The social-responsibility norm refers to the expectation that people will help those who need help
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Frequently Asked Questions about Altruism Psychology
What is altruism in psychology?
Altruism is voluntary and intentional behavior that is meant to benefit another with no expectation of return.
What is altruistic behavior in psychology?
Altruistic behavior in psychology requires a level of empathy. The empathy-altruism hypothesis suggests that empathic emotion produces altruistic motivation.
What is an example of altruistic behavior?
Donating blood is an example of altruistic behavior.
What causes altruism?
Altruism is caused by a five-step process:
Helping others involves a five-step process.
Notice an event
Interpret as an emergency
Assume responsibility for helping
Know how to help
Decision to help
What are the types of altruism?
The four types of altruism are reciprocal altruism, genetic altruism, pure altruism, and group-selected altruism.
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