Fundamentalism

The definition of religious fundamentalism in sociology

Let's look at the meaning of religious fundamentalism and briefly cover its origins.

The first known instance of religious fundamentalism was observed in the late 19th century in the United States of America. A liberal branch of Protestant Christianity had emerged which attempted to adapt its views to better accommodate the post-Enlightenment age of modernity, particularly new developments in sciences such as the theory of biological evolution.

Conservative Protestants heavily opposed this, believing that the Bible must not only be interpreted literally, but was also historically accurate. They began a fundamentalist movement that would remain influential for centuries to come.

Causes of religious fundamentalism

Let's go through some sociological explanations for religious fundamentalism here.

Globalisation

Anthony Giddens (1999) argues that globalisation and its association with Western values, moral codes, and lifestyles is an undermining force in many parts of the world. Westernisation and its association with equality for women and minorities, free speech, and the promotion of democracy, is regarded as threatening traditional authoritarian power structures and patriarchal dominance.

This, coupled with the influence of Western consumerism and materialism, which is viewed as 'spiritually empty', means that the advent of globalisation has caused significant insecurity among the people. The growth of fundamentalist religion is therefore a product of and a response to globalisation, providing simple answers in an ever-changing world.

Steve Bruce (1955), however, asserted that religious fundamentalism does not always arise from the same source. He differentiated between two varieties: communal fundamentalism and individualist fundamentalism.

Fig. 1 - Globalisation made it easier to spread the ideas of modernity

Religious differences

Samuel Huntington (1993) argues that a 'clash of civilisations' materialised between fundamentalist Islam and Christianity in the late 20th century. A range of factors, including the declining importance of nation-states resulting in the rising importance of religious identity; as well as increased contact between countries due to globalisation, mean that religious differences between Christians and Muslims are now exacerbated. This has resulted in hostile 'us versus them' relationships, and the increasing likelihood of digging up old conflicts.

However, it must be noted that Huntington's theory has been widely criticised for stereotyping Muslims, ignoring divisions within the religions themselves, and obscuring the role of Western imperialism in fostering fundamentalist movements.

Characteristics of fundamentalism

Now, let's look at the key features that characterise fundamentalist religion.

Religious texts are taken as 'gospel'

In fundamentalism, religious scriptures are absolute truths, undisputable by anyone or anything. They dictate all aspects of a fundamentalist's way of life. Moral codes and core beliefs are adopted straight from their sacred texts, with no flexibility. Scripture is often used selectively to support fundamentalist arguments.

An 'us versus them' mentality

Fundamentalists tend to separate themselves/their group from the rest of the world and refuse to make any compromises. They reject religious pluralism and mostly avoid contact with those who think differently than them.

All areas of social life are deemed sacred

Everyday life and activities require a high level of religious commitment and engagement. For example, fundamentalist Christians consider themselves 'born again' to live the rest of their lives in a special relationship with Jesus.

Opposition to secularisation and modernity

Fundamentalists believe that modern society is morally corrupt and that tolerance of a changing world undermines religious traditions and convictions.

Aggressive reactions to perceived threats

Since many aspects of modernity are viewed as threats to their value systems, fundamentalists often adopt defensive/aggressive reactions in response to these threats. These are intended to shock, intimidate, or cause harm.

Conservative and patriarchal views

Fundamentalists tend to have conservative political opinions, which usually means they believe women should occupy traditional gender roles and are intolerant of the LGBT+ community.

Fig. 2 - Religious texts such as the Bible are foundational to fundamentalism.

Fundamentalism in contemporary society

Fundamentalist interpretations of religion are on the rise in some sections of society. The two most discussed forms of the phenomenon as of late are Christian and Islamic fundamentalism.

Christian fundamentalism: examples

One of the most prominent examples of Christian fundamentalism today can be seen in the case of the New Christian Right (also known as the Religious Right) in the US. This is the section of American right-wing politics that relies on Christianity as the foundation of their political beliefs. Rather than the economic, their emphasis is on social and cultural matters.

The New Christian Right holds conservative views and pushes for policies and reform on a variety of issues, most notably education, reproductive freedom, and LGBT+ rights. They advocate for the teaching of creationism rather than evolution in biology curriculums, and believe sex education in schools should be abolished and replaced with abstinence-only messaging.

Christian right-wing fundamentalists are also against reproductive rights and freedoms, condemning abortion and contraception and lobbying against the provision of these services. Many supporters of the New Christian Right also hold homophobic and transphobic views and campaign against rights and protections for these communities.

Islamic fundamentalism: examples

Islamic fundamentalism refers to a movement of puritanical Muslims who seek to return to and follow the founding scriptures of Islam. The phenomenon has risen most visibly in nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan.

There are several well-known examples of fundamentalist Islamic groups that either are or have been active in the past few decades, including the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.

While they may have different origins, Islamic fundamentalist movements all generally hold the view that countries with Muslim-majority populations should return to a fundamental Islamic state governed by the rules and laws of Islam in all aspects of society. They oppose all forms of secularisation and Westernisation, and seek to eliminate all 'corrupting' non-Islamic forces from their lives.

Similar to other fundamentalist religious followers, they have deeply conservative views, and go as far as to treat women and minority groups as second-class citizens.

Fundamentalism and human rights

Religious fundamentalism has long been criticised for its extremely poor record of upholding fundamental human rights.

For example, states and movements that are considered to be Islamic fundamentalist have rules that conflict with international law, resulting in violations of human rights including a severe lack of criminal procedures, very harsh criminal penalties that cause great distress, discrimination against women and non-Muslims, and prohibitions against abandoning the Islamic religion.