Socialisation and Identity

How are we socialised?

Socialisation occurs from birth. There are two sociological identifications of socialisation.

Formal socialisation

Formal socialisation refers to where people are purposely conditioned into obeying certain rules.

Informal socialisation

Informal socialisation is where people learn to fit into their society and culture by observing and learning from others. They discover their place in society and how to behave in it.

Effects of socialisation on human behaviour

Socialisation is important for humans to understand how society works and how we should interact with eachother. In different cultures, we are socialised into different beliefs which make us fit into that society. There are two main types of socialisation that were first identified by sociologist Talcott Parsons. These types of socialisation have different effects on our behaviour as growing humans.

Primary socialisation and behaviour

Primary socialisation is what a child learns from their immediate family. They take on the same values and beliefs as the family as well as learn what the parents expect of the child. This differs from family to family and helps children to gain a sense of identity.

Socialisation has a direct correlation to identity, and therefore influence at a young age is important in creating a sense of self.

Fig. 1 - Primary socialisation occurs in the immediate family.

Secondary socialisation and behaviour

Secondary socialisation is when a child learns what the wider society expects of them. It often occurs outside the home and can be put down to the following 'agents of socialisation':

• The family

• Peer groups

• Mass media

• Religion

• Education

• The workplace

Socialisation and the creation of social identity

Our identity often varies based on our social situation as we consider the views of those around us. We often form our identity through two different stages. Let's look at the concepts of primary and secondary identity.

We will consider the social construction of identity through structuralist and social action views.

Structuralist views on socialisation and identity

Structuralist views include functionalism, feminism, and Marxism. We will consider how each view sees the construction and development of identity.

Functionalism on identity

Functionalists believe that identity is formed from learning your role in society. By conducting this role, you learn how to function within society and gain an identity at the same time.

Talcott Parsons highlighted the concepts of primary and secondary socialisation; he viewed identity as developing from these initial socialisations and continuing as we enter social situations throughout our lives.

Feminism and identity

Feminists believe that identity and self are constructed by gender roles, which are created and perpetuated by patriarchy.

Ann Oakley saw the construction of identity as stemming from patriarchal views. She saw that socialisation into our society enforced negative gender roles through unconscious stereotypes.

• Role models

Expectations are often created for children to look up to their parents of the same sex. Due to this, children form their identity from the activities and behaviour associated with the expectations of that gender.

For example, if girls are taught to be like their mothers, they are likely to start adopting that identity; from a young age, they may start to participate in chores. They believe that this is part of their identity as a girl or woman.

• Gender expectations

Parents set expectations for their children based on their gender, either consciously or unconsciously. Boys may become better at sports because the parent puts more time into it with them, under the expectation they will achieve well due to their gender.

• Punishment

Parents may punish children based on their own norms and values. For example, if a boy is acting stereotypically effeminate, he may be told off by his parents. The child learns that this is 'bad' behaviour and interprets it into their social norms.

Marxism and identity

Marxists such as Eli Zaretsky view socialisation in the family as a tool of capitalism. He argues that the family acts as a psychological function, and we are nurtured into it. The children are socialised to obey society and therefore the commands of the bourgeoisie. Children are aware of this hierarchy and their place in society.

By socialising into these roles at a young age, there is even less hope of an eventual uprising and overthrow of the bourgeoisie. Our identity further perpetuates this societal divide as we take on our proletariat role unquestionably.

Social action views on socialisation and identity

Social action views include interactionism and postmodernism.

Interactionism on identity

• Mead

According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology, George Mead held the view that:

Furthering from this, he suggested the main parts of our identity can be seen as an inner core because they are so ingrained and integral to our being. We can relate this inner core to the idea of our master status. A master status is the social position we describe ourselves with the most, which influences our behaviours and social identity.

• Goffman

Goffman developed his idea of dramaturgy. He suggested that everybody is an actor and society is our stage. Socialisation is how we learn to play our assigned roles. He distinguished between two concepts within this theory; the front stage and the backstage.

• Becker

Becker introduced labelling theory. He explored how our identity and behaviours can be taken from the way others describe and class us. Our identity is influenced by how others perceive us.

• Cooley

Cooley (1902) coined the term 'looking glass self'. This process explored how we develop our self-identity by understanding how others perceive us.

Postmodernism on identity

Postmodernist Lyotard explored the idea of metanarrative. A metanarrative refers to a broad, overarching ideology that is 'universally true'. For example, aspects of religion and science are metanarratives: the process of evolution, how God built the Earth in seven days, etc. We don't question these metanarratives but instead take them on board as fact.

Metanarratives commonly shape our identity as they can be a big part of our lives that goes unquestioned. We may base our identity on aspects of metanarratives that we learn at a young age as fact.

Lyotard rejects metanarratives, instead offering the view that society is changing so fast that it can't be explained by them. We are encouraged by modern society to question perceived facts such as religious or scientific explanations. This dispels the effects of metanarrative influence over our identity.

The relationship between socialisation, identity and culture

We will explore how our identity relates to social factors and surrounding culture. There are 7 main social factors which shape our identity: age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality, and social class. These can also be known as the characteristics of our identity. Let's explore them further.

Age and identity

Bradley explored the significance of age and found that it was a significant factor in a person's identity. It was a factor which bonded people together with those of the same age.

Age shapes our identity for many reasons. In particular, trends can be used to create our identity and these vary greatly depending on age.

Through this, we can share identity and relate to each other. This is a simple but effective means of shaping our identity from age.

Gender socialisation and identity theory

Gender comes with a multitude of social expectations. Parents often wish to know the gender of their child to adjust clothes colours or buy toys based on gender. This reinforces gender roles from birth, even though newborn babies have very few physical differences or behaviours.

Ann Oakley believed that children learned the expectations for their gender from primary socialisation. Let's look at the two facets of her gender socialisation and identity theory below.

Canalisation and identity

Oakley coined this term regarding how boys and girls are channelled into particular activities. The activities are determined by their gender. For example, girls are pushed into trying ballet whilst boys attempt football. This isn't due to the choice of the child but rather due to the influence of the parents.

Nicknames and identity

Children are often labelled differently by adults due to their gender. Boys are referred to as 'mate' or 'little monster', whereas girls are called 'sweetheart' or 'princess'. These terms solidify gender roles in the minds of children; they feel like they must conform to them.

In addition, children's clothing has slogans such as these on them, which further ingrains the identity. It physically labels the child in a certain way.

McRobbie concentrated her research on gender roles in the media, in particular in magazines. She found that men are represented as strong and women as weak. These repeated stereotypes influence our identity as both men and women, reinforcing gender roles by what we see in the media.

Disability and identity

Barnes (1992) stated that the media has led us to believe many myths about disabled people. For example, that they are pitied by society, entirely dependent on others, do not have sex lives, or cannot care for themselves. The media rarely presents disabilities as a social norm, instead displaying them as a burden.

The media stereotypes of disabled people lack diversity. Those who are disabled don't always hold their disability as a huge part of their identity. Disabilities vary widely, with some taking this into their identity and some not.

Goffman suggested that disabled people have a 'spoiled' identity, due to people's perception resting on their disability rather than who they are as a person. Others often focus on their disability as the deciding factor of their identity above anything else. Those who are disabled often take their disability on board with their identity, yet this is not their main focus. This shapes disabled identities as they may feel more discrimination or pity in society.

Ethnicity and identity

Ethnic groups often share a sense of history, traditions, languages, and beliefs. These differences are usually learned in childhood through primary socialisation, as ethnicity commonly stems from family.

Hall stated that new identities are created, whilst ethnic identities are more difficult to experience due to globalisation.

Language is a key indicator of ethnic identity. Many British households raise children in their native language, as well as English, as this helps to create a strong identity from childhood.

Fig. 3 - Ethnic Identity is often taught by the family.

Modood (2005) noted that besides language, there are often also traditions that help reinforce ethnicity, including dress, food, and religion.

Gilroy (2002) researched African identities and stated that there was no singular black identity or community. Instead, the experience of slavery affected perceptions of Black people, which united the different communities.

Class and identity

Our social class builds our identity as it often determines the area we grow up in, what we have access to, and how we spend our leisure time.

Bourdieu identified cultural capital. He suggested that the upper class determines what is seen as 'good taste' in society, such as going to museums, the opera, etc. This is known as high class. Those in the lower classes can't truly experience this and find leisure in other activities. This attributes to our identity as it determines what we experience and interpret in the world.

Bradley saw that the media we are saturated with allows us to pick and mix whatever identities we see fit, regardless of class. This represents a step forward in class identity as we are no longer as restrained to cultural capital, as suggested by Bourdieu.

Durkheim said that those who don't work can have feelings of normlessness and uncertainty as they lack the norms of an everyday routine. They struggle to fulfil their identity as they cannot take it from their workplace. It's important to consider this from the perspective of someone unemployed.

Nationality and identity

National identity refers to the feeling of being part of a large community in a nation. It creates a sense of belonging for individuals. Nationalism can commonly be experienced when a large event occurs such as the World Cup. People unite over their national identity.

Fig. 4 - National identity evokes pride in communities.

Hall explored the idea of national identity and found that every nation had its unique collection of symbols, stories, and images, e.g. anthems, flags, and festivals. These identified the shared experiences and helped people express their national identity. He also highlighted the increase in cultural hybridity.

Sexuality and identity

Sexuality is seen as a social construct. We establish sexual norms from culture. In Ancient Greece, homosexuality was seen as normal, yet many cultures condemned it. This is known as heteronormativity - the expectation of heterosexuality to be natural to all.

Some forms of sexuality carry a great stigma. However, those who have 'come out' now have a wider range of identities to associate with, e.g. macho, butch, effeminate, etc.