Government as an institution

Meaning of Government as an Institution

What does it mean when we think of the government as an institution?

Political systems and governments as institutions are considered to be cultural universals because they exist in every society. Their role is to control and govern the people of the specific society.

Sociologists look at the nature of this control, the ways in which governmental power and authority affects social institutions and people and, in general, the social consequences of the distribution of power. In this, they differ from political scientists, who are more interested in the different types of political systems, their processes, elections and political parties.

Political Systems and the Government as a Social Institution

Political systems can be studied on the macro and on micro levels, depending on what the exact focus of the consideration is.

• Macro-level research often focuses on the nature and sources of power, and on types of governments.

• Micro-level studies analyze certain social groups or institutions in relation to power and politics. They might look at the changing position of women in society, or the distribution of power between the wealthy and the poor in a country.

Further themes of research within the wider topic of government as an institution are war, peace, terrorism, political activism and social policy.

Functions of Government as an Institution

Governments as institutions have different functions. Their responsibility is to maintain power relations and authority, both within and outside the state. Thus, they manage issues of conflict, such as war and terrorism, and they guide the people in times of peace.

What is Power and Authority?

The concept of power is one with a lot of negative connotations to it. It is a common belief that power corrupts a man’s soul. One must either not have too much of it or learn to control it and use it for good. The concept itself is an ancient one, and there have been many attempts to give an accurate definition of it.

Power can represent itself in governments and large organizations, as well as in small communities and intimate relationships. We are going to focus on power in political systems.

The Three Sources of Power in Political Systems

Sociologists identified three sources of power in political systems. These are force, influence and authority.

Sociologists usually use the concept of authority when they talk about a group of people who possess legitimate power over people through elected positions.

The Three Types of Authority in Society

Max Weber (1947) created a classification system that identified three ideal types of authority.

• Traditional authority

• Rational-legal authority

• Charismatic authority

Weber argued that all three types of authority can be present in society at the same time, but with varied significance.

What is Conflict?

When one discusses power and authority, one must talk about conflict. Conflict is a central aspect of struggling for and exercising power.

When a conflict develops into an armed conflict, we refer to it as war.

Sociologists approach the topic of war from different perspectives. Some focus on global aspects, while others consider how military conflict affects the citizens and social institutions of one particular nation (Kiser, 1992).

What is Peace?

The opposite of conflict and war is peace.

What is Terrorism?

Terrorists usually believe that their act of terrorism serves the development of a new order. Terrorist attacks are often generated from the desire to end the suffering of the poor and oppressed.

Government as an Institution of the State: Types of Government

There have been different forms of government throughout country and time. Scholars have identified five major types of government: monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, totalitarianism, and democracy. We'll go through each of these now.

Monarchy as a Form of Government

A monarchy is a government in which a single person rules until they die or abdicate. When that happens, their offspring becomes the new monarch by birth.

The title of king or queen in a monarchy is hereditary.

Fig. 1 - Monarchies are led by a king or a queen.

Sociologists distinguish between absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies based on the monarch’s power and authority over state matters.

Nowadays, most monarchies are more symbols of tradition and history, and serve in a social rather than political role.

Oligarchy as a Form of Government

An oligarchy is a form of government where the real power is held by a small, elite, wealthy group of individuals.

Members of the oligarchy can come from different walks of life, their position is not hereditary or necessarily based on family lineage, like in the case of a monarchy.

The term oligarchy has a negative connotation to it. Often, countries that are officially democracies are also named oligarchies by scholars, as state power is in the hands of a small minority group and state decisions are made seemingly for the financial benefit of that group.

Dictatorship as a Form of Government

Power and authority is held by a single person in a dictatorship.

Dictatorships are also usually viewed in a negative light, although Max Weber has done some research on the personal appeal and charisma of dictators, which shed light on the fact that some dictators are beloved by their subjects.

Dictatorships often use force and persuasion - so military power and propaganda - to maintain their authority over the population.

Totalitarianism as a Form of Government

As a specific subtype of dictatorship, totalitarian dictatorships aim to control every aspect of the lives of the population. They tend to be even more oppressive and forceful than dictatorships.

Democracy as a Form of Government

A democracy is a form of government that tries to involve all its citizens in the decision-making about issues concerning society as a whole.

Democracies establish certain basic rights for their people. One of the most important rights is that people are free to organize political parties and vote for whoever they believe would represent their social matters in the best way in elections.

Democracies have elected leaders, who accept the country’s constitution and abide by its laws. Their time in the high position is limited and so is the power they can exercise. If they want to make changes, they must go through the government, pass laws, and create social policies to make sure that the changes were representative of the will of the majority.

Politics in the USA

Let's see what politics and the government look like on paper and in practice in the US.

The political system of the United States of America is based on the Bill of Rights and a democratic, two-party system. The president of the US is elected, so are leaders of state and local governmental organizations by secret ballot.

Citizens of the US are familiar with the basics of the political system, and most US citizens identify with either one of the political parties: Republicans, Democrats or independents. Actively, only a small minority of citizens participate in political organizations.

Sociologists have found a decline of political participation and voting in America at the end of the 20th century. The Internet, however, brought new opportunities both for political parties and for citizens to get involved with the political processes. Since the rise of the Internet, there has also been a rise of voter turnout.

At the same time, there still is a low turnout among minority ethnic groups and the poor. Sociologists argue that it is because of their focus on survival rather than on politics; in addition, they feel powerless, and they believe that their vote would not change anything for them.

Race Issues in Politics

African Americans and ethnic minority groups were and still are underrepresented in the American political system. Black men got the right to vote only after the Civil War. Black women were only allowed to vote later, in 1920.

Racial and ethnic minorities are underrepresented in the US Congress, in both political parties. There have only been one non-White president of the US until now (Barack Obama). He was first elected in 2009 and served in the position until January 2017.

Gender Issues in Politics

Historically, women have been underrepresented in American politics. They only got the right to vote in 1920 with the implementation of the Nineteenth Amendment. To this day, there have always been more men in high, political positions and America is yet to witness a female president.

Class Issues in Politics

Lower-educated and lower-paid workers are less likely to participate in voting than people of better socioeconomic backgrounds. This suggests that wealthier people are represented more and thus have more power in politics than poorer citizens.

Often, ethnic minority individuals work in lower-paid jobs; thus, there is also a lack of representation of poorer ethnic minorities.

The Judicial System in the US

One of the three branches of the American government is the judicial system. It consists of local, state and federal courts.

The highest court in America is the US Supreme Court, which makes the final decision about laws and their constitutionality.

Importance of Government as an Institution of the State: Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists of different perspectives have discussed the importance, roles and purposes of governments and politics. We will consider three different theoretical perspectives on government and politics: functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalism on Government and Politics

According to functionalists, all aspects of society serve a unique purpose. Governments fulfil four key functions:

• Guiding and directing society

• Meeting social needs

• Maintaining law and order

• Managing international relations

Functionalists believe that governments help to regulate conflict and maintain social order. They think that in order to have a well-functioning society, all its dysfunctional elements must be kept under control. That is what governments help to do.

Functionalists are generally against social change, as they believe it forces undesirable things on society and its people.

Conflict Theory on Government and Politics

Conflict theory was developed from the theories and ideas of Karl Marx, and it usually considers the social inequalities of society and discusses how power is imbalanced in certain social groups.

According to conflict theorists, social problems such as crime and poverty are the result of unequal and discriminative social structures rather than individual mistakes. Marx was against capitalist society in particular. He argued that poverty and the oppression of the working class was the result of the powerful minority wanting to keep their power and wealth at the expense of the majority.

Marx claimed that a more balanced and equal society could be reached by engaging in conflict. This conflict would be a proletarian revolution. According to Marx, after the conflict, there would be greater personal freedom and economic stability in the society he called a ‘socialist society’.

C. Wright Mills (1956) expanded on Marx’s theories and created the concept of the power elite. He argued that a small group of powerful and wealthy people controlled society through the government and social policies. According to modern theorists of this perspective, the members of the power elite engage in the same social and professional behaviors. They usually attend the same elite clubs and schools and often have holidays at the same, exclusive locations.

Symbolic Interactionism on Government and Politics

Symbolic interactionists, such as Max Weber and George H. Mead, are concerned about social interactions, symbols, emblems and individuals of society.

When it comes to governments, they focus on symbols and individuals that come to represent authority and power in society. In terms of researching government in the US, a symbolic interactionist would probably focus on symbols such as the White House, the eagle, the presidential seal and the flag of America.

Fig. 2 - The White House is one of the most recognisable symbols of the American government.

Furthermore, symbolic interactionism is interested in the micro aspects of government and politics, such as face-to-face interactions, personal lobbying, campaigning and meetings of decision-makers in politics.