Theories of Aging

Theories of Aging: Summary

Just as individuals have different perspectives on aging, so do different types of sociologists! Let's explore the major gerontological perspectives in sociology.

Fig. 1 - There are several variations of functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist views on aging in sociology.

Functionalist Theories on Aging

Functionalism is one of the core sociological theories. Its proponents argue that all 'parts' of a given society work together to ensure society runs smoothly. Every institution, system, and structure has its own purpose while depending on other institutions to carry out their role effectively.

According to functionalists, the elderly population is one of society's many vital parts. They suggest that those with the resources and will to stay active in society's institutions will fare better in their old age.

Three key functionalist perspectives explore the experience of old age in further detail:

• disengagement theory,

• activity theory, and

• continuity theory.

Conflict Perspectives on Aging

Conflict theorists suggest that society functions based on a power imbalance between two or more groups that compete for resources and power.

For example, Marxists suggest that society is unstable due to the class conflict between the rich bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the poor proletariat (working class). Feminists believe society is patriarchal - where men dominate, and women are oppressed.

When applying this framework to age, conflict theorists suggest that the elderly struggle for resources against younger members of society. For example, some people argue that the high costs of Social Security and Medicare are unfair because the senior community appears to take up most of the resources that these services offer.

There are three core conflict theories of aging:

• modernization theory,

• age stratification theory, and

• exchange theory.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Aging

Symbolic interactionist theories examine how societies are built from everyday interactions. People understand the world, their own identities, and the identities of other people through cultural symbols.

The main premise of the symbolic interactionist view on aging is that the process of aging, as well as the social and life changes associated with it, have no inherent meaning. All the ideas and notions that we associate with aging have been created by members of society. They are socially constructed.

Furthermore, several factors determine whether we perceive and/or label someone as 'old':

• We associate certain physical or biological factors with aging, such as baldness, body aches, wrinkles, or white hair.

• We may also turn to people's personal histories, such as certain illnesses or accidents, which may make people feel older sooner than expected.

• The concept of gender age also reveals how we attribute aging differently to men and women - where the former may be labeled as 'mature', and the latter as 'old'.

• Finally, social norms also lay out timetables that indicate when people can be considered 'old'. One such example is retirement as a marker of old age.

The main symbolic interactionist theories of aging are:

• subculture of aging theory,

• selective optimization with compensation theory, and

• gerotranscendence.

Major Theories of Aging

Now that we've looked at each of the main theories of aging let's review the perspectives that fall under each core sociological tradition.

Disengagement Theory of Aging

Disengagement theory is the earliest functionalist perspective on gerontology, pioneered by Elaine Cumming and William E. Henry (1961). They argue that withdrawal and distance from wider society is a normal aspect of growing older.

There are several reasons for this:

• Our gradual mental and physical decline leads us to distance ourselves from wider society and other individuals.

• The life stage of old age is less constrained by social norms and rules that govern our behavior. There is less pressure to conform to society's ideals, as there are fewer methods of reinforcement, such as school rules or workplace etiquette, directed toward the elderly.

• The experience of disengagement is gendered. When thinking in terms of more traditional gender roles among heterosexual couples, we can imagine that the man takes on the instrumental, breadwinner role, and the woman takes on the nurturing role of child-rearing and housework. In old age, both will need to find ways to step out of these roles and adapt to their new 'disengaged state'.

For its time, disengagement theory was revolutionary - no famous sociologist had theorized old age as a distinct life stage characterized by different norms, values, and behaviors. However, over time, the theory has faced a wealth of criticism, specifically for its assumption that all people withdraw from society in old age.

Activity Theory of Aging

The aim of activity theory, another functionalist theory of aging, is to address the generalized assumption that elderly people need to reorient their 'roles' to adapt to their new identities in old age.

It suggests that social involvement and activity are extremely important for helping people find new 'roles' in old age. In other words, the more active and engaged an elderly person is with other individuals and social activities, the happier they will be in their old age.

Critics of activity theory argue that not everybody has access to the same activities, opportunities, and modes of engagement - and from those who do, not everybody enjoys this! For instance, an elderly person may have access to a broad social network but may not feel fulfilled from interacting with them all that much.

Instead, critics suggest that informal activities or hobbies are most important for happiness, satisfaction, and fulfillment in old age.

Continuity Theory of Aging

Proponents of continuity theory (the third functionalist perspective on aging) suggest that elderly people make specific choices that help them remain active throughout old age.

Specifically, the elderly seek consistency in two types of structures in their lives:

• Internal structures, including aspects like personality and belief systems.

• External structures, such as relationships with others.

The point of seeking consistency is for the elderly to be able to maintain stability in old age. One example of this is attending a particular community event (stereotypically, this could be bingo night!) once a week, every week, in the same place and with the same people.

However, critics suggest that this view of old age excludes atypical experiences of aging, such as those characterized by Alzheimer's or other forms of decline.

Modernization Theory of Aging

According to modernization theory, the processes of industrialization and modernization are the main causes of elderly people losing power in society. The status of the elderly declines as societies modernize, as this process is characterized by increasingly individualistic values. As we can tell, this is a conflict theory of aging.

In pre-industrial society, social norms and values dictated that younger generations were responsible for caring for the population in their old age. These days, the nuclear family has largely taken the place of the extended family, and the social responsibility of caring for elders is seen as voluntary rather than obligatory.

Modernization theorists also suggest that the extended family provides a place and specific role for elderly people. As people in old age become less able to make economic contributions in society, their main responsibilities are those within the household.

However, as we have seen, the extended family is in decline, as the nuclear family is becoming the main way of organizing familial relationships in Western society. To this end, the elderly also tend to be seen as a non-productive economic burden on their younger counterparts.

Age Stratification Theory of Aging

Another pioneering theory that comes easily to us in the modern-day - age stratification theory (the second conflict theory of aging) - was revolutionary for its time. Its proponents suggest that populations are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by gender, ethnicity, and social class.

In other words, age is a factor that can bring about particular inequalities and differing life chances. Different age groups have differing access to opportunities, resources, and life chances - whether in the social, political, or economic domain.

Furthermore, specific norms and values dictate the behaviors that are 'appropriate' (or not) for people of certain ages. For instance, wearing a bikini is not usually considered normal in old age, as regular discourse and the media tend to neglect the fact of elderly female sexuality.

A significant criticism of age stratification theory is that it neglects other forms of stratification that are arguably either:

• more influential than age, or

• more influential when combined with age (and examined using an intersectional lens).

For example, some may suggest that economic or ethnic indicators have a stronger influence in shaping our life chances. As an extension, we might examine how life chances are different for a White elderly man and a Black elderly woman.

Exchange Theory of Aging

Dowd (1975) takes a rational choice approach, which is based on the conflict tradition. They suggest that, because we are increasingly dependent on others in old age, we are less and less free to make our own decisions in this life stage.

Fig. 2 - Many theories of aging consider the role that the elderly play in the lives of those around them.

In this view, social relationships also tend to be based on mutual exchange. In old age, when people have fewer resources to exchange, their social circles and relationships tend to decline.

Proponents of this view suggest that resource management is the only way to stay engaged with wider society. Resource management refers to strategies like maintaining a large financial inheritance or taking part in social exchange systems such as volunteering or child care.

Criticisms of exchange theory suggest that its proponents overestimate how transactional people are in their social relationships. In other words, they suggest that people are not as calculating as this view proposes and that we must consider non-material exchanges like friendship and love.

Subculture of Aging Theory

As a symbolic interactionist, Rose (1962) suggests that the elderly form a shared community when they are excluded from wider society. This can be intentional or accidental.

Nonetheless, the elderly keep to themselves and form new relationships, rituals, and behavioral patterns with their fellow community members.

Baltes' Theory of Successful Aging

The symbolic interactionist perspective of selective optimization and compensation theory was pioneered by Baltes and Baltes (1990).

It explains how the processes of selection, optimization, and compensation are the keys to managing everyday life and experiencing successful personal development. While this occurs in all life stages, scholars of gerontology focus on how elderly populations manage their daily lives with the gains and losses that come with this stage of life.

Selective optimization and compensation theory explains that our energy levels decline as we get older. As such, we choose (select) personal goals to maximize (optimize) the output of the efforts that we give to certain activities. This way, we can make up (compensate) for the losses of wider social, economic, and physical goals that we had in previous life stages.

This theory considers the fact of physical decline that is proposed in disengagement theory but sees it in a more positive light. More specifically, they suggest that disengagement from wider society means that the elderly can reserve their time and energy for the most meaningful and important activities.

Gerotranscendence

Lars Tornstam (2005) proposed the symbolic interactionist theory of gerotranscendence to suggest that as people age, they become more selfless, peaceful, and connected to nature. The limiting views of their younger lives get left behind as new wisdom sets in - their moral views soften, and ambiguities and contradictions become more tolerable.

Tornstam argues that not everybody achieves this wisdom in old age. Some people still grow to be bitter, grumpy, and left out. This aligns with the symbolic interactionist view that it is up to individuals to convert their struggles and failings into strengths.

The Importance of Aging Theories

Theories of aging are important because they allow us to understand how aging can be conceptualized from different perspectives. A key example of this is disengagement theory, which was the first perspective to consider the specificities of old age - something that, as sociologists, we had never considered before!

These theories also help us answer old questions and to ask new ones.

Ultimately, sociological theories of aging are important because they help us identify inequalities that may arise among the elderly population. For instance, conflict theories of aging have shed light on how the elderly face differing life chances and opportunities just because they are old. This process is known as age discrimination or ageism.

When these issues are highlighted, we can think about how to resolve them and make our society more equal.