Social Class Inequality

What is social class?

Fig. 1 - The 'correct' way of defining and measuring social class is a highly contested topic in sociology.

Moreover, social class is measured in economic terms, such as wealth, income, education, and/or occupation. Many different social class scales are used to examine social class inequality.

What is inequality?

Let's consider inequality generally. Historically, there have been many different types of systems of stratification, such as the slave and caste systems. Today, it is the class system that determines the nature of our modern societies, such as that in the UK.

Stratification

It is important to note that stratification occurs across many dimensions. Generally, however, class is considered the primary form of stratification in society.

The other forms are secondary. Many people believe differences in economic rankings to be more influential in shaping people's lives than other, non-economic types of ranking.

Now that we've considered the concepts of social class and inequality, let's look at social class inequality.

What are social class inequalities?

The term social class inequality, simply put, signals the fact that wealth is unevenly distributed across populations in modern society. This leads to inequalities between social classes based on wealth, income, and related factors.

The most famous scale was pioneered by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels (1848), who identified the 'two great classes' that emerged with capitalism.

For Marx and Engels, inequality was directly related to one's relationship to the means of production. They perceived social class inequality as follows:

Marxism has been criticised for its dichotomous, two-class model. So, two additional classes are common across a variety of class scales:

• The middle class is positioned between the ruling class and the upper class. They are often more qualified and take part in non-manual work (as opposed to the working class).
• The underclass is lowest on the stratification scale. The difference between the working class and the underclass is that the former, despite working routinised jobs, are still employed. The underclass is generally seen to be made up of those who struggle with employment and education to an even greater extent.

John Westergaard and Henrietta Resler (1976) argued that the ruling class has the most power in society; the source of this power is wealth and economic ownership. In true Marxist fashion, they believed that inequalities are ingrained into the capitalist system, as the state perpetually represents the interests of the ruling class.

David Lockwood's (1966) views on the social class hierarchy are similar to those of Westergaard and Resler, based on the notion of power. Lockwood states that individuals assign themselves to particular social classes in a symbolic manner, based on their experiences with power and prestige.

Social class inequality: life chances

Life chances are another common way to examine the distribution of resources and opportunities in society. The concept of 'life chances' was pioneered by Max Weber as a counterargument to Marxism's economic determinism.

Weber believed that economic factors are not always the most influential upon social structures and change - other important factors contribute to society's conflicts as well.

A wealth of research proves the strong, historical relationship between social class, inequality, and life chances. As you might expect, upper social classes tend to have better life chances due to several factors. Here are some important examples.

• Family: inheritance and access to important social networks.

• Health: higher life expectancy and reduced prevalence/severity of illness.

• Wealth and income: more earnings, savings, and disposable income.

• Education: increased likelihood of completing schooling and higher education.

• Work: higher-ranking positions with job security.

• Politics: access to - and influence over - electoral practices.

Social class inequality: statistics and explanations

It has been established that those from lower classes tend to have lower educational achievements and outcomes, lower work chances, and worse overall health. Let's look at some social class inequality statistics and their sociological explanations.

Social class and education inequalities

How do social class and education inequalities present themselves?

Fig. 2 - Social class is highly correlated with a variety of life chances.

• Students from disadvantaged backgrounds fall further behind in their academics as their school years go by. At age 11, the average gap in scores between poorer and wealthier students is about 14%. This gap increases to about 22.5% at 19.

• Students who were eligible for free school meals earned 11.5% less than their colleagues five years after graduating.

• 75% of 16 to 19-year-olds from disadvantaged backgrounds opt for vocational education, which creates and perpetuates a class-based gap in education.

The following are common sociological explanations of the link between social class and educational achievement.

• Those with less income tend to live in poorer-quality housing. This makes them more likely to fall ill. Furthermore, they may lack access to high-quality healthcare and/or nutrition - overall poorer health means that the academic performance of disadvantaged students is also likely to suffer.
• Students with lower socioeconomic backgrounds tend to have parents with lower educational levels, who may not be able to help their children with their academics.
• Financial struggles for disadvantaged families can subject schoolchildren to stress, instability, potential homelessness, maladjustment, and reduced ability to afford additional educational materials (such as textbooks or field trips).
• Apart from material resources and wealth, Pierre Bourdieu (1977) argued that people from disadvantaged backgrounds are also likely to have less cultural capital. A lack of cultural education from homes, such as museum trips, books, and cultural discussions also negatively impacts academic performance.

There is also a strong link between educational achievement and life chances at later stages, concerning dimensions such as work and health. This means that students with disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds are also more likely to struggle later in life.

Social class and work inequalities

How do social class and work inequalities present themselves?

• People with working-class backgrounds are 80% less likely to work professional jobs than those from the middle or upper classes.

• If they do land a professional job, working-class employees earn, on average, about 17% less than their colleagues.

• The risk of unemployment is statistically higher for members of lower classes.

The following are common sociological explanations of the link between social class, education, and work chances.

• There is a strong statistical link between education levels and employment. Since lower classes tend to have lower educational achievements, this tends to translate into them having fewer work chances as well.
• There is also a strong statistical link between manual skill specialisation and the risk of unemployment. Since disadvantaged students are inclined to take the vocational educational route more often than their peers, this explains the link between lower classes and fewer work chances.
• Those with lower working-class backgrounds are more vulnerable to illness due to poor-quality housing, polluted neighbourhoods, and a lack of health insurance. A higher risk of illness for those who are most likely to work in physically demanding, manual work also translates to a higher risk of unemployment.
• A lack of cultural and social capital among working-class people also causes a high risk of unemployment; when placed in a situation where they need to 'look and behave a certain way' to land or keep a job, they may not be aware of the etiquette these situations demand.

Social class and health inequalities

How do social class and health inequalities present themselves?

• The Health Foundation reports that in the year 2018/2019, more than 10% of adults from the poorest measured socioeconomic class reported having 'bad' or 'very bad' health. This statistic was only 1% for people from the highest measured socioeconomic class.

• According to the World Health Organisation and the World Bank, COVID-19 vaccine administration is approximately 18 times higher in high-income countries than it is in low-income countries.

• Life expectancies are statistically higher among the rich than the poor across all social classifications (such as gender, age, and ethnicity).

The following are common sociological explanations of the link between social class and health.

• There is a link between socioeconomic status and other forms of inequality. For example, ethnic minorities and women are more likely to live in poverty. For this reason, they also generally report poorer overall health.

• There is a link between socioeconomic status and other life chances, like education and work. For example, those who are poorer tend to be less educated and are thus generally less aware of the markings of healthy/unhealthy lifestyles (with reference to habits like exercising or smoking).

• High-income individuals are more likely to be able to afford private health care and expensive treatments such as surgeries or medication.
• As mentioned, people with poorer socioeconomic backgrounds are likely to live in more crowded, poorer-quality housing. This makes them vulnerable to illnesses, for example, being unable to distance themselves from a sick family member in a shared dwelling.

Social class and gender inequality

How do social class and gender inequalities present themselves?

• Women are more likely to be in low-paid jobs compared to men.
• The Health Foundation found that women in the poorest and most deprived areas in England have a life expectancy of 78.7 years. This is nearly 8 years less than women in England's richest areas.
• Women are more likely to be in debt and live in poverty than men.
• Women in poverty are more likely to be working in jobs with low incomes and have smaller pension funds.

The following are common sociological explanations of the link between social class and gender.

• The cost of childcare prevents women from lower social classes from working, leading to income inequality, as women from higher social classes are more likely to afford childcare.
• There are more female single parents, which affects their ability to work long hours and demanding jobs. Working mothers are more likely to work part-time than men.
• In general, women are more likely than men to be paid less for equivalent work (the gender pay gap), leading to a higher likelihood of impoverished women.

Are life chances still impacted by social class?

Let's consider how much impact social class still has on life chances.

Societal structures and social class

Fig. 3 - The shift in dominant modes of production has resulted in structural changes in the class hierarchy.

There have been many notable changes in the class structure over the years. Generally, alterations in the class structure are the result of changes in the dominant modes of production used in society. An important example of this is the shift between industrial, post-industrial, and knowledge societies.

As a result of the change in the dominant modes of production used in society, working conditions and labour-market requirements have transformed as well. This is indicated by changes in every class on the hierarchy.

• The upper class has generally declined in size, as shareholding as a form of ownership is now more common among the middle class.

• Middle classes have expanded as the knowledge industry gave rise to many more middle-class occupations (such as managerial and intellectual work).

• The decline of the manufacturing industry has resulted in a smaller lower class.

These structural changes indicate that life chances, to a very small extent, may have begun to equalise in British society over the past few decades. Many people's life chances have improved as inequalities of earnings have narrowed with the shift in dominant modes of production.

However, there is still a long way to go before total equality is achieved. That journey must account for other relevant factors such as gender, ethnicity, and disability.