- In this explanation, we will explore how and why socioeconomic classification is based on occupation.
- We will then look at the types of socioeconomic classification used in the UK, both previously and currently.
- We will explore the Registrar General's Social Class scale and its strengths and weaknesses.
- Finally, we'll examine and evaluate the National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification.
Socioeconomic status classification: occupation
We'll be looking at occupation as a socioeconomic status classification.
There are myriad ways to define and measure social class. Socioeconomic factors generally include occupation, income/wealth, education, and location. For the past 100 years in the UK, though, socioeconomic classification has most commonly been based on occupation.
This is considered a reliable indicator of a person's class status due to:
Objectivity: using occupation is more objective since class categories can be created using criteria that don't rely on a person's individual assessment. Calculating class through occupation is especially relevant for comparisons in sociological studies.
Life chances: a person's occupation is often related to many other aspects of their life. This allows us to draw inferences about their income, wealth, education, health status, etc. Furthermore, empirical correlations can be observed between occupation-based classes and individual-level or group life chances.
Identity: although personal experiences and social hierarchies of gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and so on all contribute to an individual's identity, occupation remains one of the most important identity markers in society.
Parental socioeconomic classification
Although parental and/or family socioeconomic classification is not considered in modern socioeconomic classifications in the UK, it is often included in other similar measures. For instance, family social class and access to resources are considered in the US categorisation of socioeconomic status (SES).
Types of socioeconomic classification
Now, we will look at the types of socioeconomic classification used in the UK, both previously and currently.
Until the late 20th century, two forms of socioeconomic classification were used in the UK in both government statistics and academic research: social class based on occupation (RGSC, also known as Registrar General’s Social Class) and socioeconomic groups (SEG).
In 1994, a branch of the Office for National Statistics (ONS) commissioned a review of official social class categories. The review's recommendations led to the establishment of a new socioeconomic classification: the National Statistics Socioeconomic Classification (NS-SEC), which replaced both RGSC and SEG.
Fig. 1 - Socioeconomic classes have been calculated differently at different times.
The Registrar General’s Social Class scale
Let's begin by taking a closer look at the predominant scale of classification prior to the NS-SEC: social class based on occupation, or the Registrar General’s Social Class scale (RGSC).
A comparatively simple measure of social class, this scale divided the population into five fundamental classes that are either middle-class or working-class (with class 3 split into two manual and non-manual categories). A table depicting this, along with examples of occupations in each socioeconomic class, can be seen below:
Registrar General’s classification (source: Livesey and Lawson, 2006) | ||
---|---|---|
Social classes | Example occupations | |
Non-manual [middle class] | 1. Professional2. Intermediate3N. Non-manual skilled | 1. Accountant, doctor, clergyman, university lecturer2. Pilot, farmer, manager, police officer, teacher3N. Clerical worker, sales rep., shop assistant |
Manual [working class] | 3M. Manual skilled4. Semi-skilled5. Unskilled | 3M. Butcher, bus driver, electrician, miner4. Bar worker, postal worker, packer5. Labourer, office cleaner, window cleaner |
The RGSC was created with two occupational features in mind:
Skill: each class category comprises occupations with similar skill levels and abilities, e.g. professional workers are class 1, skilled manual workers are class 3, etc.
Status: the prestige and status of each occupation were also considered. This was an important dimension because it introduced an ordinal element into a nominal scale.
'Nominal' refers to the grouping of similar occupations with no judgment of their relative worth, while "ordinal" refers to the idea of hierarchising different skill groups.
The scale ranked different classes hierarchically based on their 'standing' within the community – put differently, each group was judged by their social reputation (with class 1 occupations having the highest social status).
Additionally, the RGSC scale divided occupations into two clear classes: middle-class, which involved non-manual work; and working-class, which involved manual work.
Advantages of the RGSC
While this type of classification is now outdated, it did have some distinct advantages. These include:
Simplicity: The hierarchy was relatively intuitive and easy to understand and apply in different circumstances. It also reflected a fairly 'common-sense' approach to social class based on occupational status.
Ease of comparison: As the scale was widely used, both occupational changes over time and changes in class-based life chances could be easily compared for studies on health and family situations.
Disadvantages of the RGSC
The Registrar General’s Social Class scale had quite a few weaknesses that eventually led to its redundancy:
Categorisation in the RGSC
Classification of individuals through these criteria requires an occupation, which effectively excluded several parts of the population. Examples are the wealthy who live off inheritance or investments rather than income; the unemployed; those never employed due to illness or disability; and those who perform unpaid labour, e.g. stay-at-home wives and mothers.
Subjectivity of the RGSC
Although occupations were split into two different classes and categorised as manual/non-manual for a reason, this caused two problems. Firstly, specific occupations were assigned to a class mostly based on the subjective judgments of civil servants.
Also, Rose et al. (2005) added that "the manual/non-manual divide is simply not a meaningful distinction given the nature of work and occupations in 21st-century market economies".1
Intra-occupational status within the RSGC
The scale was oversimplified because it did not consider the status differences that exist within occupations. For instance, a probationary teacher was entered into the same class category as a fully qualified teacher.
It also failed to consider that the same occupational group can include people with very different income levels, e.g. managers and teachers.
The National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification
The National Statistics Socioeconomic Classification, also known as the NS-SEC, is the most recent form of social class categorisation. It was designed from a classification called the Goldthorpe Schema, created by sociologist John H. Goldthorpe.
The NS-SEC differs from previous socioeconomic classifications primarily because there are three versions of it, comprising 8, 5, and 3 classes respectively. That is, it is collapsible – although the 8-class scale is nominal, it can be ‘collapsed’ into a 3-class version that ranks occupations in an ordinal manner. This is displayed in the table below:
NS-SEC classes and collapses (source: Rose et al., 2005) | ||
---|---|---|
8 classes | 5 classes | 3 classes |
1. Large employers, higher managerial, and higher professional2. Lower managerial and professional3. Intermediate4. Small employers/self-employed5. Lower supervisory and technical6. Semi-routine7. Routine8. Never worked and long-term unemployed | 1. Managerial and professional2. Intermediate3. Small employers/self-employed4. Lower supervisory and technical5. Semi-routine and routine | 1. Managerial and professional2. Intermediate3. Routine and manual |
Another aspect that separates the NS-SEC from older forms of government occupational scales is its foundation. The scale is developed to measure ‘employment relations’ and ranks occupations by considering:
Conditions of the labour market: this means assessing each occupational group in terms of rates of income, job security, and promotional prospects.
Conditions of work: this involves studying different degrees of power, authority, and control that employees have within various workplaces.
The original 8-class NS-SEC also incorporates different modern workplace exchanges and contracts. These include the salaries and benefits typically received by employees in class 1; labour contracts and wages obtained by those in classes 5-7; and intermediate contracts combining elements of both of the above that are typical for class 3.
Fig. 2 - The NS-SEC takes into account employment relations and conditions.
Evaluations of the NS-SEC
This new order of classification was built to avoid the problems of previous occupational scales; in many respects, it does this. It is also updated every 10 or so years and therefore accurately reflects the ways in which work and occupational structures have evolved in recent times.
However, it still has some issues, both specific to the NS-SEC and general to occupational scales.
Class structure in the NS-SEC
The NS-SEC distinguishes between employers, employees, the self-employed, and those who never work or are unemployed long term. However, the class of 'employers' seems to exclude the ultra-wealthy who employ others but don't have a traditional 'occupation'.
There is also a further problem regarding the 'never worked' category: it seems to represent an underclass, but groups together types of people who may have very different circumstances. For instance, it can mean those who never intend to work, those who are unable to work, and those who want to work but cannot find jobs.
Inadequate factoring of unpaid employment in the NS-SEC
Since occupation is defined through paid employment, a whole group of people who work but are not paid, such as domestic labourers or home-makers, is excluded from the scale. Differences between occupations are also not adequately factored in.
This leads to an issue that is separate from the problems that came up with the Registrar General's Social Class scale because it pertains to service workers.
Issues with categorisation of service workers in the NS-SEC
Developments in how work is structured and organised, as well as the impact of globalised competition, have led to certain employees being categorised as 'short-term, self-employed, contract workers'.
However, the rates of pay, duties, and working conditions of management consultants, for example, vary significantly from those of service workers in hospitality.
This reflects a problem in setting and defining class boundaries - both in terms of deciding where one class ends and the next begins, and perhaps more importantly, whether socioeconomic class can be properly captured and represented in occupational scales.
Visit our 'Defining and Measuring Social Class' for more information about the difficulties in defining and representing social class using occupation.
Socioeconomic Classification - Key Takeaways
- Until the late 20th century, two forms of socioeconomic classification were used in the UK: Social Class based on Occupation (RGSC, also known as Registrar General’s Social Class) and Socioeconomic Groups (SEG). These were then replaced by the National Statistics Socioeconomic Classification (NS-SEC).
- The Registrar General’s Social Class scale divided the population into five fundamental classes that were either middle-class or working-class (with class 3 split into two manual and non-manual categories). It was created with two occupational features in mind: skill and status.
- The advantage of the RGSC is that it is simple and easy to make comparisons with. However, it has problems with categorisation and subjectivity and overlooks inter-occupational differences.
- The National Statistics Socioeconomic Classification (NS-SEC) is the most recent form of social class categorisation. It has three versions, comprising 8, 5, and 3 classes respectively.
- This NS-SEC avoided many problems of previous occupational scales and more accurately reflects the ways in which work and occupational structures have evolved in recent times. Its disadvantages include issues with class structure, unpaid workers, and categorising service workers.
References
- Rose, D., Pevalin, D. J., & O'Reilly, K. (2005). The National Statistics Socio-economic Classification: origins, development and use. Palgrave Macmillan.
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Frequently Asked Questions about Socioeconomic Classification
What is socioeconomic classification?
Socioeconomic classification refers to the sorting of people into different classes based on socioeconomic factors, such as occupation.
What are the 4 socioeconomic factors?
The 4 socioeconomic factors generally include occupation, income/wealth, education, and location.
How do you measure socioeconomic status?
In the UK, socioeconomic status is measured by the National Statistics Socio-economic Classification.
What are the 5 social classes?
The NS-SEC has a version with 5 social/socioeconomic classes. These are:
1. Managerial and professional
2. Intermediate
3. Small employers/self-employed
4. Lower supervisory and technical
5. Semi-routine and routine
What is the socioeconomic status of a country?
Each country may have a different measure of socioeconomic status. In the UK, the National Statistics Socioeconomic Classification is based on a hierarchy of occupations.
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