Media Representations

The definition of media representation

Firstly, what do we mean by media representation?

Let's look at an example to illustrate the representation of an institution in the media.

Types of media representation

Media plays a significant role in representing the key social markers of identity, including:

• age,

• gender,

• class,

• ethnicity, and

• sexuality.

Let us now explore and understand the different types of media representations by addressing the key indicators.

Age representation in the media

The media represents children, youth and the elderly (categorisations based on age) differently, which influences society's behaviour towards them.

Children in the media

The media's representation of childhood is often through images or videos of a child being playful, happy and carefree.

Youth and young people in the media

The media's representation of the youth is largely associated with fashion, music, fast food, the internet etc. The advertising industry aims at young people to increase demand for their products.

Although media representations of the youth are constructed around lifestyle and identity, they also portray them as a social problem.

Fig. 1 - The media often associates the youth with habits like smoking or drinking.

The media's portrayal of youth subcultures as a threat to the dominant norms and values of society tends to fuel deviant behaviour by young people. Representation of the youth in association with notions of deviance and criminality leads to an exaggerated outburst of public concern, which is called moral panic.

Wayne et al. (2008) conducted a study where they looked at over 2000 news pieces and discovered that young people were mostly represented as a threat to society. They described the media as showing a "one-dimensional representation of youths".¹

This is also the case when the media delivers a negative picture of the youth as being harmful, dangerous, or immature rather than drawing attention to the challenges they face as teenagers like unemployment and mental health problems.

The elderly in the media

The popular stereotypes associated with the media's representation of the elderly involve seeing them as a 'burden' on the younger generations. They are also known to be emotionally and physically weak.

There are adverts that represent elderly people enjoying healthy, active lifestyles and ageing 'gracefully'. However, there is a significant gender difference in the media representations of elderly people.

Gender representation in the media

The traditional mainstream media representation of women is often associated with social roles, whereas men are shown performing occupational roles.

Media representations of women and femininity

Gaye Tuchman's (1978) concept of symbolic annihilation refers to the under-representation of women. The idea indicates that women are associated with social roles linked to gender stereotypes.

Tuchman further argues that women's looks and sex appeal are always prioritised over their achievements in media representations.

Marjorie Ferguson's (1983) content analysis of women's magazines (from 1949 to 1974 & 1979 to 1980) suggests that the representation of women was based on stereotypical traditional female roles, which she called the cult of femininity.

Naomi Wolf (2013) suggested that women were presented as 'sex objects' in the media.

Laura Mulvey (1973) used the term male gaze to define how the camera focuses on female body parts for the viewing pleasure of men. The male gaze exists mainly because heterosexual men controlled the camera. Simply put, women are represented as sex objects and not as a person.

According to liberal feminists, media representations fall behind the reality of social and economic conditions. They acknowledge that representations of women have improved in the last few years, but argue that the majority of media professionals - journalists, producers, directors, editors, etc. are men.

Media representations of men and masculinity

Antony Easthope (1986) argued that a range of media representations of men promote the notion that masculinity is determined biologically and that it is a natural goal for men to achieve. They associate masculinity with traditional stereotypes of being strong, aggressive, competitive and violent.

Representation of sexuality in the media

Traditionally, media representations of sexuality have been almost exclusively heterosexual, with LGBTQ+ people remaining invisible, marginalised, or negatively portrayed.

Fig. 2 - LGBT representations remain invisible and are often ignored.

Batchelor et al. (2004) found that when there were representations of LGBTQ+ people in mainstream media, they were not included in realistic or respectful plot lines. Instead, the only reason a character was represented as non-heterosexual was often to kickstart a plot line.

Steve Craig (1992) suggests that media representations of gay male characters in films or popular shows are often associated with exaggerated stereotypes, such as displaying particular "feminine" facial expressions, tones, and clothing, or possessing amusing or negative characteristics.

Craig points out three often overtly homophobic media indicators of 'gayness':

• Camp: This is widely used for representing gay characters (in films or TV), lying somewhere between male and female, portraying them as flamboyant, fun-loving and 'non-threatening'.

• Macho: This is a look that exaggerates aspects of traditional masculinity and is portrayed as a threat to heterosexual men.

• Deviant: This depicts gay people as evil or negative, as sexual predators or as people who feel guilty about their sexuality. These representations reinforce the impression of homosexuality as 'morally wrong'.

David Gauntlett (2008), a sociologist and media theorist, argues that the LGBTQ+ community remains under-represented in much of the mainstream media, but the tolerance for sexual diversity is slowly improving.

According to him, the increased representation of diverse sexual identities with which audiences are unfamiliar would make the general masses more aware and comfortable with alternative sexual lifestyles.

Representation of social class in the media

Media representations of social classes vary significantly. It may be worth reminding ourselves what we mean by 'social class'.

Media representations of the wealthy (upper class) are generally positive as something one should aspire to.

Media represents the middle class through television dramas and adverts promoting products that suit the taste and interests of the middle class. Most media professionals (journalists, editors, directors, etc.) are privately educated, and the content they represent is more likely to represent the middle-class point of view.

David M. Newman (2006) argues that media representation of the working class is generally negative - labelling them as a social 'problem' - for example, as drug addicts and criminals.

Media representation of ethnicity in sociology

Media sociologists believe that the media's representation of ethnic minority groups is often associated with negative, racist stereotypes.

Minority groups in general are often portrayed as a 'threat' to society. Consider the following examples.

• Immigrants are seen as a threat in terms of their numbers, as their perceived motive is to take advantage of welfare services and partake in employment opportunities.

• Refugees and asylum seekers are represented as a cause of social unrest that leads to moral panic.

• Negative media representations portray Muslims (or any South Asians who 'appear' Muslim) as dangerous, oppressive and irrational, with stories focused on terrorism and religious domination.

Teun A. van Dijk (1991) analysed news channels for several decades and discovered that representations of ethnic groups were able to fit into several negatively labelled categories: ethnic minorities represented as a threat, as criminals, as unimportant in society or simply not represented at all.

Media representatives from ethnic minority groups have developed media institutions and agencies such as Eastern Eye, Snoop and The Voice, focusing on the interests and concerns of ethnic-minority audiences in response to these stereotypical portrayals.

Ethnicity, crime and the media

Media representation of crime, for example, often involves news explicitly pointing out the involvement of Black or Muslim people.

Furthering from this, Wayne et al. (2007) found in their study of the news that nearly half of news stories concerning young Black people involved them committing crimes.

In addition, Stuart Hall (1978) conducted a study into levels of mugging in London in the 1970s. At the time, the media presented sensational headlines of an increase in muggings, particularly by Black youths. Despite this, Hall's research found that there were actually fewer muggings than in the previous decade. He determined this outcome was from a moral panic caused by the media.

Representation of disability in the media

Sociologists argue that media representations of disabled people are generally associated with a range of stereotypes. People with disabilities are often objects of pity, seen as unable to participate fully in social life and being in constant need of help or assistance.

Colin Barnes (1992) suggests the following recurring stereotypes in representations of people with disabilities:

• Pitiable and pathetic - media representations focusing on disabled children and the possibilities of miracle cures in TV shows or documentaries.

• Sinister and evil - think of the negative characters in James Bond movies. They are often shown to have some kind of physical impairment.

• Atmospheric or curious - media portraying disabled people engaging in drama to create an atmosphere of menace, unease or deprivation.

• Super-cripples - portrayal of disabled people as having special powers.

• Sexually 'abnormal' - the media portrays the disabled as having no sense of sexuality, no sex appeal or even as sexually challenged.

The media rarely represents disabled people to be productive working members of society - Barnes termed this stereotype as an omission.

Disabled representation in telethons

Media representation of disabled people through telethons merely confirms social prejudices and rather reinforces the idea that they should be 'dependent' on others. Instead of helping one to understand the everyday challenges of being physically disabled, telethons are primarily to entertain people and raise money.

Media representation theory: sociological perspectives on media representations

Let's look at sociological perspectives on media representations.

Marxists and feminists believe that the root cause of gender stereotypes is economic interests.

• For Marxists, media representations are a by-product of the capitalist market.

• For feminists, the male-dominated media aims to attract large audiences with stereotypical images of women.

Radical feminists believe that traditional hegemonic images of femininity are deliberately portrayed to keep women oppressed and limited to a narrow range of roles. This creates a form of false consciousness in women, discouraging them from taking up opportunities that would consequently challenge men's patriarchal power.

David Gauntlett (2008), a postmodernist, stresses the relationship between the mass media and identity. According to him, today's mass media challenges traditional definitions of gender and is rather a force for social change.