Media Sociology

Introduction to the sociology of media

Let's go over four of the main aspects of media in sociology: the advent of new media, issues of ownership and control of the media, the globalisation of media, and processes of news selection and presentation in media.

New media in society

Let's consider what new media is and how it is used in contemporary society.

What is new media?

New media and the evolution of existing media delivery systems

Systems of media delivery have changed drastically in the past 30 years. This is embodied in high-definition digital TV with hundreds of channels, which has evolved from aerial, black-and-white TV with limited options for viewing.

New media and the development of new digital communication technologies

New media marks the creation of new forms of digital communication technologies, such as personal computers, mobile phones and the internet. These have enabled new forms of communication, e.g. text messaging.

Who uses new media and how?

• According to Ofcom, the 16–24-year-old age group use new media the most and elderly people use it the least. The majority of younger people use it for various reasons, including gaming and social networking. Older social media users heavily favour Facebook.

• The middle and upper classes are more likely to use digital media technologies as they can afford them. According to some sociologists, the poor are a digital underclass that cannot keep up with the middle-class technological elite.

• Men are more likely than women to use e-mail or chat rooms, play more computer games, and are reportedly more confident about their IT skills. Conversely, women spend more time on the phone and send more text messages than men.

Characteristics of new media

The six major characteristics of new media are that it is:

1. Digital

2. Interactive

3. Hypertextual

4. Globally networked

5. Virtual, and

6. Simulated

The impacts of new media on society: sociological perspectives

We will go through some sociological perspectives on new media, outlined below.

Cultural optimists or neophiliacs on new media

Neophiliacs believe that new media is generally beneficial to society. This is because it gives easy and widespread access to information, allows the creation of new social networks, increases consumer choice, aids democracy, and has heralded an e-commerce revolution.

Cultural pessimists on new media

Cultural pessimists, on the other hand, argue that the positive impact of new media is exaggerated and that it can have drawbacks. These include corporate control of the internet, surveillance of consumers, declining quality of media and a lack of regulation.

Fig. 1 - Cultural optimists believe new media is beneficial to society because it allows access to information through, for example, the internet.

Ownership and control of the media

We will consider who has ownership and control of the media and how this influences the media content.

Why study ownership and control of the media?

Patterns of ownership and control of the media are important because:

• For democracy to function, all systems of thought should be readily accessible and represented.

• Any abuses of power and privilege by society's elites need to be scrutinised by free and fair media outlets.

Trends in ownership of the media

The number of companies that own and control the mass media worldwide has shrunk considerably in recent decades. In the 1980s, 50 corporations controlled almost all news media outlets in the USA, but by the 2000s, this number decreased to just 7.¹

According to Curran (2002), a select few have historically owned British newspapers. For instance, in the 1930s, nearly one in every two national and local daily newspapers sold in the UK was owned by four individuals.² Unfortunately, the issue has been getting worse over time.

Theories of ownership and control of media

There are two competing sociological perspectives on the ownership and control of media: Marxism and postmodern pluralism. Read more about them below.

The Marxist perspective on ownership and control of media

Marxists argue that the ruling class largely owns mass media and uses it to reproduce and normalise capitalist ideology. This is because, by doing so, they promote capitalism and the interests of the elite. According to Marxists, the role of media institutions is to legitimise the capitalist system and condition the working class into adopting capitalist ideas.

The pluralist perspective on ownership and control of media

Pluralists have a much more positive view of media ownership. They believe that media owners are usually trustworthy because media content is primarily influenced by consumer demand, not owners' interests. Media outlets are therefore only fulfilling consumers' wishes to make a profit; consumers ultimately have the final say on what gets featured.

To what extent do owners control media?

Curran and Seaton's (2003) in-depth study of the history of the British press found that media tycoons have interfered with British news media content from the early twentieth century to more recent decades.

They argue that the postmodern pluralist view that media owners do not influence media content is empirically false, asserting that intervention by moguls such as Rupert Murdoch has actually increased since the 2000s.

However, Curran and Seaton also believe that Marxists are incorrect about owner motives. Media owners are not pushing a class agenda but rather running businesses and pursuing their own economic self-interest.

Media, globalisation, and culture

We will be looking at global media, globalisation and culture.

What is the globalisation of media?

Global media essentially includes all forms of mass communication that can be used and accessed worldwide - television, newspapers, radio, the internet, etc.

How has globalisation influenced society?

The most profound impact of globalisation in society has arguably been on culture. Cultural globalisation refers to the adaptation and exchange of different cultural values, ideas, attitudes and products across the globe. It has changed the nature of almost every aspect of society, including:

• Migration patterns

• Food and eating habits

• Sports and entertainment

• Consumption patterns

• Global consciousness

Consequences of cultural globalisation

Some of the major consequences of the globalisation of culture have been detraditionalisation and heightened risk consciousness.

Detraditionalisation is the process where people actively question their traditional value systems and social norms. This can include religious beliefs, the institution of marriage, gender roles, etc. It is a result of being exposed to different lifestyles and ways of thinking, a direct impact of globalisation.

Risk consciousness refers to the fact that, due to real-time global news updates and more access to information than ever, people globally are hyperaware of risks such as crime, terrorism, natural disasters, etc. This has both negative and positive effects as it can cause panic/paranoia but also empathy.

Sociological perspectives on mass media and globalisation

There are three main theoretical views on the globalisation of media.

Cultural imperialism on the globalisation of media

This perspective argues that globalisation through media is a process of Americanisation - whether American culture and values are imposed on other parts of the world, diluting local cultures and traditions.

Postmodernism on the globalisation of media

Followers of this theory consider media to be central to globalisation and focus on the positive influences of media globalisation on society, e.g. more knowledge and wider lifestyle choices.

Marxism on the globalisation of media

Contrary to postmodernism, Marxists argue that globalisation restricts choice because international media corporations exercise too much control.

Fig. 2 - Cultural globalisation through media has been criticised for forcing Americanisation and corporate control on people.

News selection and presentation in media

With so many events happening at the same time, it is not possible to broadcast everything. How do media platforms decide what 'news' is? In this topic, we will be considering how news is selected and presented in the media.

The social construction of news media

Some sociologists believe that news is socially constructed and is not an accurate way to interpret current affairs. This is because news content is shaped largely by how media professionals (such as editors and journalists) choose to select and present events, based on newsworthiness.

What are newsworthiness and news value?

The higher the news value of a subject, the more coverage it is likely to receive in the news media. This is because high news value attracts more users/readers, which brings in more profit for the media company.

Some aspects that determine the news value of a subject are:

• Impact

• Timeliness

• Shock value

• Trendiness

• Conflict/negativity

• Personalisation

Factors that affect news selection and presentation

There are a number of organisational and bureaucratic factors that can impact the selection and presentation of news content, such as:

• The financial costs of the type of reporting

• The time slot allotted by the news medium

• The deadline constraints

• The immediacy and accuracy of the story

• The target audience, and

• Journalistic ethics

Media saturation in sociology: The Marxist perspective on news selection and presentation

We live in a media-saturated society, in which the media informs much of our views and opinions and even lifestyles. Marxists argue that the content of news media primarily reflects the perspectives and interests of the rich and the middle class, excluding the opinions and affairs of ordinary working-class people.

This is because mainstream media is dominated by the views of elite owners, middle-class journalists and people in power, who all impart their own world-views and pursue their own economic interests. Therefore, news content is deeply influenced by and promotes an elite, capitalist agenda.

Moral panic theory and news selection

Working-class groups and young people are often presented in decidedly negative, sensationalised ways in news media. Middle-class journalists often stir up moral panics about these groups and their subcultures because they attract considerable public attention and reactions - they are 'newsworthy'.