Ethnography

Definition of Ethnography

Ethnographic research (or 'ethnography') is a form of research which emerged with studies of cultural anthropology, as well as the study of city dwellers by scholars of the Chicago School. It is a form of field research, which involves collecting primary data from a natural environment through observation and/or participation.

Conducting Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research often takes place over an extended period of time, from a few days up to even a few years! The main aim of ethnography is to understand how research subjects understand their own livelihoods (such as life experiences, social status or life chances), as well as their livelihoods in relation to that of the broader community.

Fig. 1 - Ethnographers can choose to study any social setting or community, as long as they can gain access to it!

A sociologist might opt for ethnography if they wanted to study, for example:

• the work culture in a corporate office
• day-to-day life in a private boarding school
• life in a small community, tribe or village
• the workings of a political organization
• children's behavior in amusement parks, or
• how people act on vacation in foreign countries.

Ethnography vs. Ethnology

It's important to be able to distinguish ethnography from ethnology. Though they seem quite similar in nature, the key difference is as follows:

• While ethnography is the study of a particular cultural group, ethnology deals specifically with comparisons between cultures.
• Ethnology makes use of data that is collected during ethnographic research, and applies it to a particular topic in the context of cross-cultural research.
• Those who study a single culture are called ethnographers, while those who study multiple cultures are called ethnologists.

Types of Ethnography

Considering the scope of human and cultural experience, it makes sense that there are several different approaches to conducting ethnographic research.

Institutional Ethnography

There are several types of ethnographic research, each with its own purpose - institutional ethnography is a key example of this. Institutional ethnography is different from traditional ethnography because it considers how various institutions impact our day-to-day lives and activities.

The research method was pioneered by Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith, and is largely considered to be a feminist-centered approach to sociological analysis. This is because it considers women's perspectives and experiences in the context of patriarchal institutions, structures and communities.

It was developed in response to the rejection of women's perspectives (as well as those of other marginalized groups, such as people of color) from social science research.

Business Ethnographic Research

Whether or not you're aware of it, you have probably taken part in business ethnographic research at some point in your life. This type of research involves collecting information about markets, target markets and consumer behavior.

The aim of business ethnography is usually to uncover market demands and user insights in order for businesses to more accurately design their products or services.

Educational Ethnographic Research

As the name suggests, the aim of educational ethnographic research is to observe and analyze teaching and learning methods. This can provide valuable insights into the factors that impact classroom behavior, academic motivation and educational achievement.

Medical Ethnographic Research

Medical ethnographic research is used to gain qualitative insights into healthcare. It can help doctors, other medical practitioners and even funding bodies to better understand the needs of their patients/clients and how to meet these needs.

Seeking medical care is often a rather complex process, and the information that medical ethnography provides can make some useful contributions for improving and equalizing access to healthcare.

Examples of Ethnography

Ethnographic studies have made many contributions to sociological theory. Let's take a look at some of them now!

On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City

Alice Goffman spent six years in West Philadelphia for an ethnographic study of the lives of a poor, Black community. She observed the day-to-day experiences of a community targeted by high levels of surveillance and policing.

Goffman conducted a covert, participant observational study, gaining access to the community by having one of the members of the community introduce her as his sister.

While On the Run was considered to be a groundbreaking work by sociologists and anthropologists, it raised important ethical issues about informed consent and confidentiality, with Goffman even being accused of committing a felony during the course of the study.

The Making of Middletown

In 1924, Robert and Helen Lynd conducted an ethnography to study the daily lives of 'the average American' living in the small town of Muncie, Indiana. They used interviews, surveys, observations and secondary data analysis throughout the course of their research.

The Lynds found that Muncie was divided into two types of classes - business class groups and the working class groups. Findings of the study showed that these broad groups were characterized by different lifestyles, goals and levels of wealth. Key concepts explored included work, home life, child-rearing, leisure, religion and community.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnography

Now that we've explored the method of ethnography as well as a few examples of it, let's take a look at some general advantages and disadvantages of ethnography as a sociological research method.

Fig. 2 - While ethnographic research provides valuable insights into people's daily lives, they can pose difficulties in terms of access and expenses.

Advantages of Ethnography

• Ethnographic studies tend to have high levels of validity. The group being studied can be observed in their natural environment, potentially without interruption or outside influence (if the researcher is acting covertly).

• Ethnographic studies are also beneficial for giving a voice to marginalized groups by considering their experiences in their own environments. This offers another form of validity.

• Ethnographic studies also tend to be holistic. By combining methods like interviews and observations, researchers can get a fuller picture of the community being studied. The combination of various methods in social science research is called triangulation.

Disadvantages of Ethnography

• Since ethnographic research studies a particular situation or community, its results don't tend to be generalizable to the wider population. However, this usually isn't an aim of ethnography - so there's some debate as to whether we can actually consider it to be a limitation of the method!

• As we saw in Goffman's study in Philadelphia, ethnography can be vulnerable to several ethical issues. A researcher infiltrating a community's daily lives and environment raises questions about privacy, honesty and informed consent - especially if the researcher has to hide their true identity.

• Even if a researcher can promise confidentiality to their research subjects, ethnography often involves studying vulnerable groups in disadvantaged positions, where the line between access and infiltration can become blurred.

• Another key disadvantage of ethnography is that it tends to be time-consuming and expensive to conduct. Ethnographers can also struggle to gain access to closed-off communities.