Feminism

About feminism

Feminism in sociology is a key conflict theory that believes society is based on inequalities between men and women. It is a conflict theory, as feminists believe society is in constant conflict due to the subordination of women by men.

Feminism states society is 'patriarchal'.

'Feminist' meaning

While feminism has a personal and individualised meaning to all those who believe in the cause, in sociology, a feminist is someone who advocates the movement of feminism and gender equality.

Fig. 1 - Legal equality is a key means of achieving gender equality

There are several branches of feminism that explore patriarchy and gender inequality in different ways. Each branch has different perspectives and goals for resolving the issues feminism stands for. However, all feminists have one thing in common; they all believe that the societal structure is patriarchal and that patriarchy is the cause of gender inequality.

What is 'feminisation' (or 'feminization')?

Fig. 2 - Feminists advocate the fight against gender inequality, patriarchy and sexism

In regular discourse, for someone to become 'feminised' is for them to take on feminine characteristics at some point in their lives. In the context of sociology, the meaning becomes a little different.

Feminisation in sociology

In sociology, 'feminisation' (sometimes spelled 'feminization') refers to the process by which society's sex and gender roles become focused upon femininity (where the focus was previously on masculinity). Here are some examples of feminisation in society:

• The feminisation of the labour force refers to the fact that the labour force is increasingly made up of women, even in sectors that were traditionally dominated by men.
• The feminisation of poverty means that women are more likely to experience poverty than men.
• The feminisation of education suggests a school environment (with reference to aspects such as teachers and curriculum) becoming more focused and oriented towards female students.

As we have seen, feminists come together on the main cause of combatting gender inequality. However, there are some minor differences in how they perceive this inequality, and how they think it can be eradicated. Let's look at the various types of feminism.

Liberal feminism in sociology

Liberal feminism is a key feminist theory, sometimes known as mainstream feminism. Liberal feminism seeks to achieve gender equality in the public sphere. It seeks to improve women's positions within existing structures and spheres of society, such as equal education and job opportunities, equal pay, freedom from discrimination, and bodily autonomy.

Liberal feminists believe that women want the same things that men do: receive a good education, work, and earn a decent, fair living. They believe that change is possible through legal and social campaigns and changes.

Key aims of liberal feminism

• Using legal changes to outlaw discrimination against women in public spheres; equal access to education, work, and health.

• Working within the existing societal structure to achieve gender equality and to change social attitudes.

• Achieving equal status between men and women by enabling the same opportunities for women.

Evaluation of liberal feminism

What are the relative strengths and limitations of liberal feminism?

Positives of liberal feminism:

• Liberal feminism has achieved a lot for women; it is the movement that gave women the right to vote in the 1930s and fought for equal pay in the UK (Equal Pay Act 1970).

• Liberal feminism seeks to resolve fundamental legal inequalities between men and women.

Negatives of liberal feminism:

• Some criticise the movement for being ethnocentric as it does not consider the oppression of women of colour, working-class women, and women belonging to other minority groups.

• Legal changes do not ensure equality; for example, the gender pay gap still exists despite laws abolishing it.

Marxist feminism in sociology

Marxist feminism is a theory that looks at the combined impact of capitalism and patriarchy, specifically on women. Marxist feminists argue that class is not solely defined by socioeconomic status and that women are an oppressed class. This is because the capitalist structure requires the exploitation of women to function. As a result, the capitalist structure is also patriarchal, and these two systems doubly oppress women. Their three claims are:

• Women raise children with capitalist beliefs and reproduce the labour force. Within these capitalist beliefs is the idea that women are subordinate to men.

• In their roles as housewives, women also provide free and invisible labour and domestic service to support men, the current workers.

• Women are cheap 'reserve' workers for men, which enables flexible production for the upper class.

Marxist feminism claims that during the exploitation of the working class, there is further exploitation of women within the family for their domestic labour. Therefore, social class is just as important a social division in society as gender.

Fran Ansley (1972) states women bear the brunt of men's anger towards capitalism. This anger is misdirected towards women and frequently expressed through domestic violence.

Key aims of Marxist feminism

• Overthrowing capitalism to end the oppressive social class division will end patriarchy. Capitalism is the main source of women's oppression.

• Introducing communism to achieve equality, of both social class and gender.

• Some Marxists claim that if capitalism is not abolished, housework and childcare should be paid work, putting an economic value on women's contribution to capitalist society.

Evaluation of Marxist feminism

What are the relative strengths and limitations of Marxist feminism?

Positives of Marxist feminism:

• Marxist feminism recognises the impact of social class on gender inequality.

• It recognises that the oppression of women is unnatural.

• As the oppression of women started in capitalist societies, it can be traced back to those points in history.

• Marxist feminism rejects biological determinist arguments, e.g., that men are in control because they are inherently smarter than women.

Negatives of Marxist feminism:

• Patriarchy existed before capitalism, and it also exists in communist societies.

• Marxist feminism solely focuses on economic factors and ignores other influences, such as race and culture.

• Not all women see themselves as oppressed. Some women want to be housewives and raise children.

• Marxist feminism ignores progress made by women within the domestic sphere; it is now common for women to also be breadwinners, so the theory may be outdated.

• Marxist Friedrich Engels claimed that divisions of labour based on sex are not necessarily oppressive, and that patriarchy was not as widespread as claimed.

Radical feminism in sociology

Fig. 3 - Liberal, Marxist, radical and intersectional feminism are commonly compared and contrasted in sociology

Radical feminism is a theory that blames women's oppression and exploitation on men. Society has been built by and dominated by men to oppress women and exploit them because of their biological functions. Patriarchy characterises the whole of society, and the only way to remove it is by restructuring society.

Radical feminists see patriarchy as embedded into all aspects of society, including legal, political and social institutions. Therefore, any change within those institutions is unlikely to address the root cause of oppression, which is patriarchy. Due to this, radical feminists seek to dismantle the entire system of patriarchy rather than make changes within the existing system through legal or social changes.

Radical feminists do not see the ability for women to do paid work as liberating. They instead argue that women now carry out a dual burden of paid work and domestic work, which continues to be primarily carried out by women. In this way, men benefit from women's unpaid labour. In addition, some argue that since there are expectations on women to be nurturing and caring, they also carry out a 'triple shift'; paid work, domestic work, and emotional labour for caring for their husbands and children.

According to radical feminists, men also maintain their power over women through domestic violence, sexual violence, and pornography.

Key aims of radical feminism

• Dismantling the system which will remove the root cause of oppression; patriarchy.
• Proposing alternative family structures to the traditional nuclear family structure, which is oppressive to women.

• More extreme alternatives propose the separation of the sexes and the end of heterosexual relationships.

Evaluation of radical feminism

What are the relative strengths and limitations of radical feminism?

Positives of radical feminism:

• Radical feminism addresses the root cause of the oppression, which it argues is the most effective way of tackling gender inequality.

• Radical feminists consider all aspects of society, including modern forms of oppression, e.g. pornography.

• Radical feminists recognise the biological exploitation of women, namely that the value of women is tied to their ability to reproduce and raise children.

Negatives of radical feminism:

• It can be seen as too extreme and unrealistic at times, especially the suggestion of separating the sexes.

• It ignores progress and achievements made by women, such as equal pay, the right to abortion, and many more.

• Radical feminism ignores women who are complicit in their own oppression, suggesting that not all women see the system as patriarchal.

• Many radical feminists believe that 'real' women were assigned female sex organs at birth. This discredits the experiences and biological exploitation of transgender women, even if they have faced the same difficulties as cisgender women.

Postmodernist feminism in sociology

Postmodernist feminism in sociology is a theory that differs in many ways from the three main modernist branches of feminism. Postmodernism generally challenges modernist approaches and narratives. In feminism, the postmodernist seeks to soften the emphasis on gender differences between men and women and focuses on the vast differences within each gender. Some believe that whilst patriarchy was a key characteristic of modernity, the postmodern era brings more choice in shaping gender identity, where individuals can 'pick and mix' from different characteristics.

Fig. 4 - Postmodern feminism emphasizes intersectionality

Intersectional feminism

A key development within postmodernist feminism is the recognition that patriarchy affects women in many different ways depending on race, culture, religion, social class, sexuality, and physical abilities. This is called intersectionality. Intersectional feminism is a relatively recent and developing branch that has arisen out of postmodern times. It seeks to examine how different social structures interact to affect women every day in many ways. In doing so, generalisations about oppression and solutions for gender equality are avoided.

Key aims of intersectional feminism

• To consider the different intersections within feminism and women's experiences across the world.

Evaluation of intersectional feminism

What are the relative strengths and limitations of intersectional feminism?

Positives of intersectional feminism:

• Postmodern feminism focuses on the power of language and narratives presented about women, for example, the portrayal of women in the media.

• Postmodern feminism and intersectionality are likely to resonate with many women if they feel the feminist narrative includes them.

• Intersectionality seeks to recognise the uniqueness of women's experiences, which can help reduce generalisations about women and lead to solutions for gender inequality.

Negatives of intersectional feminism:

• A heavy focus and discussion of language and narratives may alienate women who feel that such a focus is inaccessible or even irrelevant to feminism.

• The rise of intersectionality may make it more difficult to propose solutions for gender inequality as they may not be universally applicable.