Sociological Theories

What are sociological theories (or 'social theories')?

Sociological theories (or 'social theories') are attempts to explain how societies work the way they do, including how they change over time. While you may already have come across a range of sociological theories, it might be useful to take a step back and identify what exactly a 'sociological theory' is. There are two main ways of understanding the advent and utility of theories in sociology. This involves understanding:

• sociological theories as models, and
• sociological theories as propositions.

Understanding sociological theories as 'models'

If you were to visit the National Maritime Museum in Amsterdam, you would find many models of boats. While a model of a boat is, obviously, not the boat itself, it is an accurate representation of that boat.

Similarly, sociological theories can be seen as 'models' of society. They seek to explain the most significant features of society in an approachable yet critical way. It's important to note that the view of sociological theories as models has a few limitations. For example, some aspects of society may be overlooked or overemphasised, depending on the model(s) representing it. Furthermore, it's difficult (perhaps impossible) to determine which models more or less accurately represent society.

Understanding sociological theories as 'propositions'

As a response to the limitations of seeing sociological theories as models, some might suggest that sociological theories contain propositions. This helps us determine the criteria which we should use to accept or reject certain theories. There are two ways in which we can evaluate the propositions that sociological theories put forward.

• A logical evaluation looks at the internal validity of a particular claim. More specifically, it examines whether aspects of certain claims compliment or contradict each other.

• Aside from the validity of a combination of statements, the empirical evaluation looks at the truth of specific propositions within a theory. This involves comparing the claims in question with what exist in social reality.

Consensus versus conflict theories

Fig. 1 - Sociologists sometimes categorise theories in order to highlight the main differences between them.

Many classical sociological theories can be divided into two distinct paradigms:

• Consensus theories (such as functionalism) suggest that society functions based on a sense of agreement, cohesion and social solidarity between its members and institutions.

• Conflict theories (such as Marxism and feminism) suggest that society functions based on a fundamental conflict and imbalance of power between different social groups.

Consensus theory in sociology

The most notable consensus theory in sociology is 'functionalism'.

Functionalism in sociology

Functionalism is a sociological consensus theory that places importance on our shared norms and values. It states that we all have a function in society and compares society to a human body with its many functioning parts. All parts are necessary to maintain function and to promote orderly social change. Therefore, if one part, or organ, is dysfunctional, it may lead to complete dysfunction. This way of understanding the functions of society is called the organic analogy.

Functionalists believe all individuals and institutions in society should cooperate as they carry out their roles. In this way, society will function, and prevent 'anomie', or chaos. It is a consensus theory, believing that societies are typically harmonious and based on high levels of consensus. Functionalists believe this consensus comes from shared norms and values.

Conflict theory in sociology

Marxism and feminism are the most notable examples of conflict theory in sociology.

Marxism in sociology

Marxism is a sociological conflict theory which suggests that the most important aspect of a social structure is the economy, on which all other institutions and structures are based. This perspective focuses on the inequalities between social classes, arguing that that society is in a state of constant conflict between the bourgeoisie (ruling capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).

Traditional Marxism claims that there were two main ways of taking charge of the economy. This is by controlling:

• the means of production (such as factories), and

• the relations of production (the organisation of workers).

Those in charge of the economy (the bourgeoisie) use their social power to increase profits by exploiting the proletariat. The bourgeoisie uses social institutions to do so, and to keep the proletariat from realising their low status, and revolting. For instance, Marxists suggest that religious institutions are used to keep the proletariat from recognising their own exploitation by focusing their attention on the afterlife. This inability to see their own exploitation is called 'false consciousness'.

Feminism in sociology

Feminism is a sociological conflict theory that focuses on the inequalities between genders. Feminists believe society is in constant conflict due to the struggles between men and women.

Feminism states that the whole of society is 'patriarchal', which means that it has been built by and for the benefit of men, and at the expense of women. It claims that women are subjugated by social structures, which are inherently biased in favour of men.

Structural theory in sociology

Another way of differentiating significant theoretical paradigms is to separate perspectives into the umbrellas of symbolic interactionist theory or structural theory. The main difference between these, is as follows:

• The symbolic interactionist approach (or 'symbolic interactionism') suggests that people are largely in control of their thoughts and behaviours, and that they are free to negotiate and adapt the meanings that they attach to social actions and interactions.

• On the other hand, structural theories are based on the idea that society's broader structures, systems and institutions shape the norms and values of the individual. We are not free to reject these impositions and are highly influenced by them in our everyday lives.

Interactionism in sociology

Interactionism is a sociological theory which falls within the symbolic interactionist paradigm. Interactionists believe that individuals build society through social interaction. Also, society is not something that exists externally to individuals. Interactionism seeks to explain human behaviour on a much smaller scale rather than through large social structures.

Fig. 2 - Interactionists suggest that, through our actions and interactions with one another, we can make sense and give meaning to phenomena around us.

Interactionists claim that whilst the norms and values within societal structures impact our behaviours, individuals can change and modify these through their smaller-scale interactions with others. Society is, therefore, the product of all our interactions and is constantly changing.

Along with the interaction itself, the meanings we give to these interactions are important in creating our social realities and expectations. Interactionism focuses on our conscious choices and actions based on how we interpret situations. Since everyone is unique, everyone may perceive or interpret situations differently.

Social action theory in sociology

The social action theory also sees society as a construction of interactions and meanings given by its members. Like interactionism, the social action theory explains human behaviour on a micro, or small-scale level. Through these explanations, we can understand societal structures.

The theory states that social behaviour should be considered through its 'level of cause' and its 'level of meaning'.

Max Weber stated there are four types of social action in human behaviour.

• Instrumentally rational action - an action that is taken to achieve a goal efficiently.

• Value rational action - an action that is taken because it is desirable.

• Traditional action - an action that is taken because it is a custom or a habit.

• Affectual action - an action that is taken to express emotion(s).

Labelling theory sociology

Labelling theory is a division of interactionism pioneered by Howard Becker (1963). This approach suggests that no act is inherently criminal - it only becomes as such when it has been labelled as such. This falls in line with the premise of interactionism, such that it makes use of the notion that what constitutes 'crime' is socially constructed.

Postmodernist theory in sociology

Postmodernism is a sociological theory and an intellectual movement that claims traditional 'metanarratives' are no longer adequate for explaining postmodern life. Due to globalisation and increased scientific knowledge, postmodernists argue that we are more likely to place importance on science, technology, and media. It refers to a new way of thinking, new ideas, values, and styles of living. Such changes may affect the way we view traditional institutions and theories about how society works.

Our identities are also likely to be defined by factors different from the ones used in metanarratives. For example, functionalism would describe our role in society as part of our identity because it contributes towards the functioning of society.

Some key features of postmodern culture that affect our values include:

• The rapid growth of globalisation and global capitalism.

• Rising levels of secularisation.

• Population growth.

• The cultural impacts of media, the internet, and technology.

• The environmental crisis.

Applying sociological theory: sociological theories of crime

An important part of knowing sociological theory is to be able to apply it to real life phenomena. As an example, let's take a look at some sociological theories of crime.

Functionalist theory of crime

Functionalists see crime as being beneficial for society. Specifically, they suggest that crime serves three functions for society:

1. Social integration: People can bond over their distaste towards those who breach the norms and values that have been carefully laid out and followed by the community.

2. Social regulation: The use of news stories and public trials which address deviant acts reinforces to the rest of the community what the rules are, and what can happen if they are broken.

3. Social change: High levels of crime can indicate that there is a misalignment between the values of the society and the values encouraged by the law. This can lead to necessary social change.

Marxist theory of crime

Marxists suggest that capitalism brings out the greed in members of society. High levels of competitiveness and exploitation make it so that people are highly motivated to achieve financial and/or material gains - even if they have to commit crimes to do so.

Another key component of the Marxist theory of crime is that the law is designed to benefit the rich and subjugate the poor.