Types of Data

Different kinds of data in sociology

Researchers collect, analyse and interpret primary and secondary data. Researchers themselves collect primary data, and secondary data is the use of someone else's outputs.

The figure below shows that both primary and secondary data can be quantitative and qualitative.

Fig. 1 - There are many different types of data

Primary data in sociology: definition

Primary research involves generating data that has not previously been collected or analysed.

Examples of primary research methods in sociology (i.e., that yield primary data) include:

• Experiments

• Questionnaires

• Polls

• Observation

• Interviews

• Focus groups

Evaluation of primary data

As is the case with all sociological data and their collection methods, there are a number of advantages and disadvantages when it comes to using primary data.

Table 1 - Advantages and Disadvantages of primary data.

Secondary data in sociology

Secondary research involves collating and analysing data that has already been generated.

Examples of secondary data sources include:

• Documents

• Archives

• Official Statistics

• Research paper depositories

• Photo and video material

• Personal diaries/journals

Evaluation of secondary data

There are also a number of strengths and limitations to be aware of when it comes to using secondary data in sociological research.

Table 2 - Advantages and Disadvantages of secondary data.

Tertiary data in sociology

Tertiary data is not as commonly discussed when it comes to sociological research, but it can be quite important to take note of in certain types of research. Tertiary data include reference materials that have collected and regurgitated other data or information.

Examples of tertiary data sources include:

• Textbooks

• Manuals

• Handbooks

• Bibliographies

• Guidebooks

• Dictionaries

• Encyclopedias

Examples of data types: quantitative data and qualitative data

Sociological researchers use different forms of data depending on their topic and research objectives. For instance, they may want to consider whether the aim of their research is to measure something numerically or to describe and/or analyse it in detail. This is where sociologists have to decide whether they are seeking quantitative or qualitative data.

• Quantitative data is used to measure social phenomena in numerical, statistical or analytical terms. For example, you could measure the height of your classmates in numerical terms (e.g. 162 cm or 175 cm)

• Qualitative data is used to describe phenomena examined in categorical terms. Using the same example, you could ask your classmates to describe each other using categories “short”, “medium height” and “tall”.

Types of quantitative data

As we have seen in the example above, quantitative data takes a numerical (or 'number') form.

A sociologist might opt for methods which generate quantitative research if they want to examine social patterns or if they'd like to study the nature and/or strength of a relationship between two or more factors. There are various types of quantitative data, which you will learn more about later on in your academic career. In the meantime, we can take a look at some examples:

• The percentage of a population that is under the age of 18
• The relationship between ethnicity and occupation
• The number of people diagnosed with a particular illness in a given year
• The relationship between wealth and leisure activities

Types of qualitative data

On the other hand, qualitative data is data that is not in numerical form (but is also not necessarily just 'words').

A sociologist might prefer qualitative data if they are looking for an in-depth description and/or analysis of aspects of social life. Types of qualitative data include:

• Descriptions of observations

• Interview transcripts

• Written sources (such as diaries, journals, novels, newspaper articles, etc)

• Visual media (including photographs, paintings and videos)

• Audio media (such as recorded music)

Triangulation

Some researchers prefer to combine quantitative and qualitative research methods in pursuit of a fuller picture of social phenomena. There are two different approaches that researchers can take here:

1. Triangulation allows researchers to check whether data collected is valid and reliable by collecting it from two or more different sources. By seeing the same thing from different perspectives, the researcher confirms or challenges their findings of one method through the use of another.

2. On the other hand, a researcher may adopt a variety of sources due to believing that no single research approach is superior to another. This is methodological pluralism, or a mixed methods approach.

Fig. 2 - Research methods include triangulation

Aspects of data quality

Now that we know what questions sociologists ask when it comes to the type and form of the data they are seeking, another important question to ask is the qualities that they want this data to have. Some of the most commonly sought qualities of scientific data are validity and reliability.

Validity

Data is considered to be valid if it accurately presents a particular description, measurement or finding.

Reliability

Data is considered to be reliable when, if other researchers were to use the same methods, they would obtain the same results.